@Article{Cong2026,
journal="Folia Neuropathologica",
issn="1641-4640",
volume="64",
number="3",
year="2026",
title="Integrating diagnosis, classification, and multimodal management in epilepsy care",
abstract="       Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder marked by a predisposition to unprovoked seizures, often described as sudden “electrical storms” in the brain. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) defines it as a disorder encompassing not only seizures but also their neurobiological, cognitive, psychological, and social impacts. Affecting about 50 million people worldwide, epilepsy presents a public health challenge in low- and middle-income countries, with treatment gaps exceeding 75%. Diagnosis relies on clinical history, witness accounts, and diagnostic tools such as electroencephalograms (EEG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to differentiate between focal and generalized seizures. This review aims to highlight first-line management options, including anti-seizure medications (ASMs), surgical interventions for drug-resistant cases, dietary therapies such as the ketogenic diet, and device-based neuromodulation, such as vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). We synthesize evidence on epilepsy epidemiology, seizure classification, clinical manifestations, diagnostic pathways, and treatment modalities, while addressing the psychosocial burden and quality-of-life implications associated with the disorder. Integrated diagnostic approaches combining clinical history, seizure semiology, EEG, and MRI can improve epilepsy classification and etiological identification. ASMs achieve effective seizure control in approximately 60-70% of diagnosed patients, while a substantial subset develops drug-resistant epilepsy. Surgical intervention can provide greater long-term seizure freedom compared with continued pharmacotherapy. Dietary therapies and neuromodulation techniques, including VNS and deep brain stimulation, can reduce seizure frequency and severity. Genetic testing, AI-assisted EEG analysis, and digital monitoring may enhance diagnostic precision, treatment stratification, and quality of life through personalized, multidisciplinary care models. Epilepsy management is evolving toward a personalized, precision-medicine framework driven by advances in genetics, biomarkers, AI-assisted diagnostics, and digital health technologies for continuous monitoring. A holistic, multidisciplinary care model should integrate optimized seizure control with cognitive, psychological, and social support.   ",
author="Cong, Yannan
and Liu, Yuanyuan
and Miao, Jiaqi
and Li, Nana",
pages="225--239",
doi="10.5114/fn.2026.165742",
url="http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/fn.2026.165742"
}