Social correlates of gender role perception of 13-year-old adolescents in Poland

INTRODUCTION

Gender plays an important role in everyday life, but across cultures, some stereotypes are considered more normative and desirable for one gender than another. Gender identities are thus determined by sociocultural conditions, and the internalisation of gender stereotypes has long-term effects on people’s aspirations, opportunities, and psychosocial well-being [1].
The determinants of young people’s perceptions of gender roles are widely debated in the research literature. Research in this area focuses on analysing differences in perceptions of socially assigned gender roles and on identifying factors that influence these perceptions. In the context of the increasing emancipation of women and social change, there is a growing interest in diverse perspectives on gender roles in society. Many studies conducted in Western countries indicate that girls and boys are socialised from an early age to act according to stereotypical gender roles [2]. Recent research has also shown that young people may have different expectations regarding gendered behaviour and life choices [3]. Many of these expectations may be influenced by the media, family environment or education [4, 5]. Gender-stereotypical perceptions are important correlates of gender role attitude. Additionally, research has shown that young people often internalise gender stereotypes, which can have a significant impact on their realisation in everyday life. Furthermore, correlates of gender role attitudes may also be related to education level, membership in specific social groups or life experiences. In contemporary societies, gender roles play an important role in the formation of an individual’s identity and interaction with the environment [6]. Thus, it is important to consider both individual and contextual factors to fully understand the determinants of young people’s attitudes toward gender roles. Gender roles are not only driven by an individual’s biology but are also socially constructed through the individual’s interactions with their environment, including family (close and distant), peer groups, school, or the media [7]. Adolescence represents a time of intense transition – physi­cally, emotionally and socially. The formation of gender identity, social and cultural development, and the perception of gender roles are integral to an individual’s development, especially during adolescence. This period of life represents a key and important turning point in the development of gender identity, as adolescents begin to actively explore their gender identity and develop their own ideas about what femininity and masculinity mean and what roles are assigned to them. At the same time, according to gender intensification theory, young people adopt and intensify traits and behaviours that are considered gender-specific due to increased socialisation pressure to conform to traditional gender roles [8]. During this time, young people are not only exploring their own identities and learning how to function in a diverse social context but are also exposed to a variety of influences from their environment that may shape their gendered views and behaviours. This is the point at which educational agendas and external influences such as family, education and the media can have a significant impact on the formation of these perceptions [9]. In Poland, as in many other countries, gender role models and stereotypes continue to have a significant impact on the lives of individuals, shaping their attitudes, aspirations, behaviours and decisions [5]. According to data from the 2017 European Values Study (EVS) [10], which surveyed adults, gender role stereotypes are more deeply ingrained in Poland compared to many other European countries. Among the 30 countries analysed, Poland ranked 19th on an index measuring opinions about the division of tasks between women and men in professional and domestic spheres. The most gender-equal countries, as indicated by the index, are located in Scandinavia. It therefore seems justified to conduct in-depth analyses on the relationship between the perception of gender stereotypes and the social functioning of adolescents.
Among the numerous tools for measuring gender role stereotypes, the tool developed by Nancy Galambos [11] stands out as particularly noteworthy. Within the HBSC (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children) study, surveys of school-aged adolescents are conducted periodically every four years in a growing number of countries. The HBSC questionnaire, described in detail in an international protocol, includes mandatory questions and additional modules, which change in each survey round. It was therefore interesting to include a block of questions on gender role perception in the 2017/2018 survey. Considering the available knowledge, one study from Germany discussed the relationship between the recognition of gender stereotypes and body image [12]. The multi-faceted questionnaire allows for the exploration of several other relationships, including perception of one’s own health and undertaken health behaviours, particularly sexual behaviours. So far, the potential of the collected material has not been realised. The HBSC network publication on the sexual initiation of 15-year-olds from 21 countries, linking the frequency of sexual initiation to national indicators of adult gender role perceptions, is available from the European Values Study [13]. The results indicate that prevailing national social and cultural norms may underestimate certain indicators, due to a tendency to give socially recognised answers. The authors highlight that if a country has restrictive norms about gender roles, girls may be less likely to report sexual initiation and thus less likely to receive the appropriate information and support needed to make healthy choices. It can be hypothesised that beliefs about gender norms may directly affect seve­ral other health-related indicators and indirectly affect others through their impact on social functioning.
The purpose of the current analyses was to present boys’ and girls’ perceptions of gender roles during early adolescence in the context of selected social determinants and the potential impact on their social functioning. This study aimed to explore the complexity of the influence of social factors on the formation of gender views among adolescents during early adolescence. The analysis sought to determine what environmental factors, such as family status, demographic issues, and academic performance, may influence the formation of gender identity and perceptions of gender roles among adolescents in Poland.
The following research questions were formulated:
1. Do boys and girls in early adolescence differ in their perceptions of gender roles?
2. What social or socially determined factors differentiate perceptions of gender roles during this period of life?
3. To what extent does the perception of gender roles influence the variability of social functioning indices during this period of life?
Additionally, the collected data provided an opportunity to test the Polish version of a tool for measuring gender role perception.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was a secondary analysis of HBSC survey data collected in Poland. The study employed the variables available in the questionnaire.

Study design and sample

The cross-sectional study was conducted during the 2017/2018 school year as part of the next round of HBSC research. Young people were surveyed in schools using the traditional paper-and-pencil interview (PAPI) method. The questionnaire followed the international protocol and included mandatory questions and recommended packs of optional questions; the scope of the questionnaire’s topics may change in subsequent rounds of surveys. A nationwide random sample from all provinces (voivodships) was used. In the first step, counties (poviats) from each province were drawn, and in the second step, schools were drawn, with the sampling frame being their list available on the Ministry of National Education website. Schools were randomly drawn with a probability of selection proportional to their size with the possibility of selecting the same school more than once, which determined the number of participating classes. In the third step, school classes were selected and all pupils in the class participated in the study, provided they agreed and obtained parental consent. The data obtained from 1984 students in Class VII who answered all questions on gender role perception constitute the object of the current analyses. The other three age groups participating in this round of HBSC surveys were not asked these questions. The students attended 138 classes from 113 primary schools. The detailed information on the organisation of this round of the HBSC survey in Poland and the drawn sample is provided in the national report [14]. It is worth noting that according to international guidelines, the sampling design used in each country must be evaluated by an internal expert committee of the HBSC network.

Questionnaire

The Gender Roles Perception Scale (GRPS) was included once in the HBSC 2018 survey as an optional module in the international protocol. It was derived from the longer Nancy Galambos et al. [11] tool, which consists of twelve test items. A pilot validation study conducted in 2016 in 4 HBSC member countries (Israel, the Netherlands, Scotland, and Poland) developed a 5-item version with good psychometric properties. To check whether the individual statements were understood and accepted by students, qualitative research (focus groups) was also conducted as part of the pilot study. A detailed formulation of the components of the GRPS scale and a description of its psychometric properties are presented in the results. The responses given on the Likert scale were recoded into a range of 0-4 points (0 – strongly agree, 4 – strongly disagree). The summative scale adopts a range of 0-20 points, where high values represent progressive views, and low values represent conservative views with traditional roles assigned to women. The scale is conventionally divided into three ranges, where 0-9 points represent views against gender equality and 17-20 are in favour of equality and against stereotypes. The labels assigned to these categories refer to views on gender equality: unequal, neutral, or equal. These three groups included 27.5%, 46.1% and 26.4% of the 1984 surveyed 13-year-olds, respectively.
The social correlates of gender role perception were divided into two groups, concerning potential determinants and social effects.
The first group included:
• Place of residence recoded from four categories to three: cities with more than 100 000 inhabitants, smaller towns and rural areas. Data were obtained from an additional national question included in the HBSC questionnaire since the beginning of these surveys in Poland.
• The level of deprivation of the district by school location, coded into three groups based on quantiles as Q1, Q2-Q4 and Q5. This external information obtained from students based on school location was added to the database.
• Neighbourhood Social Capital Scale (NSCS) as a 4-item scale as an add-on module in the HBSC 2018 survey protocol, which has been reported in this form in the literature [15]. Students indicated how much they agreed with the statements given (e.g., I could ask for help or a favour from neighbours). The summative scale has a univariate structure and good reliability (Cronbach’s a 0.727), with high scores indicating stronger social ties in residence area. The scale adopts a range of 0-16 points, where a high score is a positive state and is conventionally divided into three ranges with cut-off points of 3/4 and 7/8 points.
• Family affluence as measured by the Family Affluence Scale (FASIII) [16]. FASIII contains six questions, adopts a 0-13-point range and is customarily categorised into three value ranges. It is a mandatory part of the HBSC questionnaire. In the study sample, the scale is homogeneous but has a low Cronbach’s coefficient (0.577).
• Learning achievement was measured on a visual scale (ladder) as conceptualised by Elisabeth Goodman [17]. Three groups are distinguished: poor (0-4 points), average (5-7) and good (8-10) academic achievement. This scale is assumed to be a highly socially determined variable also measuring the cultural capital of the family, and a proxy measure of the student’s target education. This question was included in the Polish questionnaire outside the international protocol.
The number of missing data for the above single questions and composite scales ranged from 14 to 44 cases and was the highest for the FAS family wealth scale. The second group had the following measurement scales:
• The well-being index KIDSCREEN-10, which in 2010 and 2014 was an optional package in the HBSC protocol, was retained in Poland in 2018 as an additional module only in the questionnaire for 13-year-olds for the continuation of trends. It is an abbreviation of a 27-item generic questionnaire for health-related quality of life developed by an international team led by Ulrike Ravens-Sieberer [18]. The short index with a range of 0-40 points includes not only questions on physical health, mental health and self-image, but also questions on the perception of family, school, and peer environment. The general index is recommended, despite the lack of homogeneity of this scale. In the analysed sample, loadings on the principal component ranged from 0.482 to 0.730. A good internal consistency was also demonstrated, with a Cronbach’s coefficient of 0.819. The mean KIDSCREEN-10 index was 24.56 ± 6.67 and was significantly higher for boys than girls (26.09 ± 6.34 vs. 23.21 ± 6.66; Z_MW = –9.4, p < 0.001).
• The Self Efficacy Scale in Social Relationships (SSE) was an optional package recommended in the HBSC survey protocol. It is a tool by Muris [19] containing 8 statements, with five Likert scale response categories (e.g., How well can you work in harmony with your classmates?). The range of summative scale values is 0-32, with higher values representing better self-efficacy. The SSE scale is homogeneous in the sample analysed and has good internal consistency (Cronbach’s a 0.841). The mean SSE index was 20.58 ± 6.06 and was at a similar level in boys and girls (20.66 ± 5.98 vs. 20.51 ± 6.14; Z_MW = –0.7, p = 0.946).
• Expectations of future involvement in volunteering (EECII). This three-item scale was an optional package that has been described in Poland [20, 21]. Students answered how likely they were to act for the benefit of others after school (e.g. Get involved in issues like health or safety that affect your community). Responses were coded from 0 – not at all likely to 4 – extremely likely, and the summative scale takes a range of 0-12 points. The scale is homogeneous and for good internal consistency, with a Cronbach coefficient of 0.768. The mean EECII index was 5.03 ± 2.96 and was significantly lower for boys than girls (4.53 ± 2.99 vs. 5.48 ± 2.86; Z_MW = –7.2, p < 0.001).
• Attitude to the world in connection to others, hereafter referred to as SPIR_CO. This is part of the spirituality scale that also includes attitudes toward self, nature and transcendent values [22]. Students responded to how important various issues were to them with 5 response categories. Three thematically consistent questions were selected (e.g. Be forgiving of other people). The scale takes a range of 0-12 points, is homogeneous in the analysed sample and in good internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s coefficient of 0.869. The mean SPIR_CO index was 9.75 ± 2.24 and was significantly lower for boys than girls (9.41 ± 2.33 vs. 10.05 ± 2.11; Z_MW = –7.0, p < 0.001).
The number of missing data for the above four scales ranged from 11 to 60 cases and was higher for KIDSCREEN-10 and SSE.

Statistical analysis

As part of the preliminary analyses, the psychometric properties of the GRPS scale were described for the entire study group and separately for both genders. The value of the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was reported, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models were estimated. The normality of the GRPS distribution was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The variation of the GRPS between schools was examined using the ICC coefficient. The distribution of responses to individual GRPS questions in boys and girls was compared using the chi-square test and Somers’ d coefficient as effect size.
The analysis model shown in Figure 1 was adopted in evaluation of the social correlates of GRPS. A study of the determinants of variation in the GRPS index compared its distribution in groups distinguished by gender, place of residence, neighbourhood wealth, its social capital, family material resources, and school achievement of the students. The chi-square test was applied. The significance of differences between the averages was tested using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney or Kruskal-Wallis tests. The factors analysed were tested as independent predictors of GRPS by estimating a general linear model (GLM).
When investigating the potential impact of GRPS on adolescents’ well-being and social functioning, univariate and multivariate analyses were also conducted. Firstly, the distributions of the four dependent variables (KIDSCREEN-10, SSE, EECII, SPIR_CO) were compared according to GRPS level using the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test. Secondly, we estimated four independent GLMs for the four outcome variables included in Figure 1, in which the effect of GRPS level is adjusted for previously analysed social factors. In this case, the general model was abandoned in favour of models specific to boys and girls.

Ethical issues

The research received approval from the Bioethical Commission operating at the Institute of Mother and Child in Warsaw (No. 17/2017 with Annex 1, dated 30.03.2017).

RESULTS

Psychometric properties of the GRPS scale

Table 1 shows the psychometric properties of the GRPS scale in the total group and for boys and girls separately. Its internal consistency is at the recommended level, with a higher Cronbach coefficient for girls. The estimated CFA confounding model had a quality of fit below the recommended level, but the introduction of random component correlations in the last two questions significantly improved the fit both in the total group and for both sexes. For all items, the regression weights are larger for girls and boys, largest for item 3 and smallest for item 5.
The full distribution of responses to the GRPS component questions is provided in Table A1 in the web appendix. In all cases, the distributions differed (p < 0.001 in the c2 test). The extreme responses were combined into pairs and the middle neutral response was left alone. With this change, it can be concluded that in the girls’ group, the percentage of those who disagree with each statement ranged from 54.9% to 68.5%, while it ranged from 29.8% to 37.5% in the boys’ group. In contrast, the percentage agreeing was much lower in the girls’ group, ranging from 12.4% to 18.8% against a spread of 19.6% to 34.3% in the boys’ group. According to Somers’ measure, the biggest differences were in the fourth item on leadership.
The distribution of the GRPS index deviated from normal (the Shapiro-Wilk statistic equalled 0.944, p < 0.001). In the sample, the mean GRPS index was 12.32 (SD = 5.48) and the median was 12. Based on the ICC coefficient, it was concluded that 3.79% of the variation in GRPS could be explained by inter-school variation, which does not indicate that the results were biased by the ensemble sampling scheme.

Social determinants of GRPS variability

Table 2 shows the mean GRPS indices and the distribution of this scale according to the three ranges in the groups distinguished by respondents’ gender, neighbourhood social characteristics, and family wealth. In all cases, a statistically significant relationship was confirmed. A significantly higher proportion of adolescents in favour of gender equality was found among girls, in larger cities and more privileged areas when the level of deprivation was taken into consideration. The association with the NSCS was found to be slightly weaker. In areas with stronger social ties, the percentage of young people recognising gender role stereotypes was lower, while the differences in the percentage in favour of gender equality were smaller. Academic achievement also proved to be a strong differentiating factor. Highly successful young people were significantly more likely to be in favour of gender equality and less likely to be in favour of gender role stereotypes.
Table 3 shows the results of the GLM estimation for the dependent variable GRPS. Its value increased towards more liberal views in urban compared to rural areas. In contrast, the decrease in GRPS towards more conservative views was favoured by male gender, poor or average academic achievement and low levels of family material resources. The association with social capital was at the borderline significance level, to the disadvantage of regions with weak social ties (p = 0.057). An association with the level of deprivation in the school location area was not confirmed after adjusting for other factors.

Impact of GRPS on variation in social functioning indices

The mean indices of the outcome variables according to GRPS level, in the whole study group and separately for both sexes are shown in web appendix in Table A2. The entire study group showed a relationship between attitudes toward gender stereotypes and the three analysed indices of social functioning. The 13-year-old adolescents with more conservative views functioned less well in social relationships with peers (SSE), considered relationships with other people less important (SPIR_CO), and were less likely to state that they would be involved in volunteering in the future (EECII). A significant association with overall well-being as measured by the KIDSCREEN-10 was not found. The inferences on the relationships studied partly changed in gender-homogeneous groups. The association between GRPS level and SSE and SPIR_CO remained in girls and boys. For KIDSCREEN-10, a relationship not observed in the general group was revealed in boys, and for EECII in girls only.
Presenting the exact GLM models of the determinants of the four variables relating to adolescents’ social functioning is beyond the scope of this paper. In Table 4, only the results on the association of social functioning with GRPS are included, omitting parameters concerning other dependent variables, but with the assumption that these are analyses adjusted for other factors included as determinants of GRPS in earlier summaries. The effect of gender role perception on KIDSCREEN-10 variability was confirmed only for boys, with their overall well-being worsening not only with non-recognition of gender equality but also with neutral views. It is difficult to interpret the relationship between GRPS and self-efficacy in social relationships, where a significant relationship was obtained in multivariate analyses only in the girls’ group but there was inconsistency in the direction of the relationship in univariate and multivariate analyses. This result can be interpreted as a flaw in the model, referred to as a statistical artefact (lack of coincidence). In the case of expectations to engage in volunteering in the future (EECII), a significant relationship with GRPS also appeared only for girls and to the detriment of the group with conservative views. The variability of the last index on attitudes towards other people derived from the spirituality scale (SPIR_CO) depended on the GRPS in both genders. In boys, however, the relationship was stronger (parameters at both GRPS levels were significant), while only adherence to conservative views was an aggravating factor in girls.

DISCUSSION

This paper presents data on the perception of gender roles in early adolescence, based on results obtained from almost two thousand Polish 13-year-olds surveyed as part of the HBSC 2018 study. The good psychometric properties of the GRPS as a measurement tool adapted to this age group were demonstrated. Association of the GRPS with gender and social or strongly socially determined factors were identified. Of these, five were treated as potential determinants of GRPS variability and four as dependent variables that may vary with the GRPS. The factors that had the strongest influence on the variability of the index were place of residence, benefiting larger cities, family affluence, benefiting wealthier families, and academic achievement, in favour of higher educational outcomes.
Our research found that 13-year-old boys and girls differed in their stereotypical perceptions of male and female roles. Girls were significantly more likely to be in favour of gender equality and less likely to agree with the statements given. These findings are consistent with a review study including 82 studies from 29 different countries, which showed that adolescents in different cultural contexts commonly endorsed norms that perpetuate gender inequality [23]. Furthermore, studies conducted in different geographical locations described how participants (especially girls) explicitly challenged stereotypical norms and gender inequality [24]. Polish studies found that pupils in grades I-III already perceive women and men through the prism of stereotypes, with pupils assigning boys and girls specific roles and activities characteristic of each gender. Most respondents (98.0%) considered it as a task belonging to girls to take care of the flowers in the classroom, to prepare a meal on a school trip (96.0%), and to keep the classroom tidy (94.0%) [25].
Furthermore, the largest percentage differences related to gender stereotypes were found in question four relating to whether boys are better leaders than girls. It is worth noting that due to traditional gender stereotypes, women not only have limited access to leadership roles, but also, even when they reach the highest levels of leadership, they are not treated with the same respect as their male counterparts [26]. Undoubtedly, gender stereotypes have created barriers for women to attain leadership positions [27]. It also remains significant that the historical and didactic narratives in Polish textbooks feature stereotypical models of women, with their role and place in the presented conceptions of the history of the nation and state, Europe and the world repeatedly ignored [28]. The Polish study also showed that almost half of the surveyed educators openly affirmed views oriented towards the mathematical dominance of men [29]. Moreover, the fact that challenging gender norms can often lead to verbal, physical and/or psychological repression remains important [30]. Despite these challenges, education on leadership roles can help to reduce stereotypes and promote gender equality. Educational programmes can facilitate the re-definition of girls’ leadership and encourage them to identify as leaders in more complex and individualized ways [31].
Our research shows that gender-equitable views are more often held by girls, young people from large cities and wealthy regions, from affluent families and those who are highly educated. Other studies have found that young people from higher income backgrounds and/or with more highly educated parents generally expressed more gender-equitable attitudes, and that higher maternal education and work activity were associated with less gender-stereotyped attitudes [32]. Living in smaller cities was also found to be associated with more frequent stereotypical perceptions of gender roles [33].
Gender norms that legitimise gender inequalities can have significant negative implications for adolescents’ health, wellbeing and social engagement in ways that persist throughout their lives. For the KIDSCREEN-10 mental health index, an association with gender role perceptions was only identified for boys. For the two social engagement scales (SSE and EECII), the differences were more pronounced for girls. Boys and girls who were against gender equality performed worse only regarding social connectedness as measured by the spirituality subscale.
It is worth noting that gender norms, which define differential status, position, access to resources and expected behaviours in line with cultural demands, for both men and women, are very much at the root of inequality. While gender norms affect girls and boys, girls are more vulnerable to the negative consequences and effects of these norms [34]. Gender norms often constrain girls’ choices to define life transitions, but they can also strongly shape the identities adopted by boys and the choices they make during adolescence [35]. One study found that adolescents with unequal gender perceptions were at increased risk of depressive symptoms. This study also provided evidence that gender divisions in depression are partly mediated by perceptions of gender norms in at least some settings [36]
Uniformly, traditional masculine identities have been linked to sexual health risks for boys, violence, substance misuse, educational failure and premature death [37]. In cohort studies, it has been observed that individuals who exhibit highly masculine or feminine traits appear to be at the highest risk of adverse health and behavioural outcomes [38]. These adverse behaviours may also lead to less social engagement, thus preventing the full, harmonious development of individuals.
The present analyses have a number of limitations, which nevertheless allow further research directions to be targeted. In the future, it would be worthwhile extending the analyses to other age groups in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Our cross-sectional study design limits the possibilities for causal inference, and the relationship between GRPS and social functioning may be bilateral. It would be particularly interesting to learn about changes in views over time and the impact of attitudes towards gender roles in early adolescence on young adult health and subsequent social functioning. Moreover, our study was limited to social correlates, but this is in line with the proposed model of analysis.
In further research including other psychosocial determinants of gender role views, it is worth keeping in mind the importance of social factors of significance proven in our analyses. This study has numerous advantages that compensate for the above weaknesses. It is one of the few quantitative studies that describe gender stereotypes among 13-year-olds while accounting for social functioning variables, given the current state of knowledge. The study included a large sample of students from more than 100 schools located throughout the country. This regional diversity is an additional advantage. Another advantage of the study is that it also highlights the differences between boys and girls, both in terms of the relevance and reliability of the GRPS as a measurement tool and the relationships obtained. In addition, the present study may have not only theoretical, but also practical significance. In communities where there are strongly entrenched gender stereotypes and consequent inequalities, understanding gender identity formation processes can contribute to better supporting young people in their personal and social development, as well as developing more effective interventions to counter harmful gender stereotypes and gender inequalities. The results presented above provide a better understanding of the specific social and cultural contexts in which young people’s perceptions of gender roles are shaped. Furthermore, research on the correlates of gender role perceptions can be useful for educational, psychological and social practice, enabling prevention, education and intervention strategies to be more relevant and better tailored to the needs of young people and to identify areas and subpopulations that may require support and assistance.

CONCLUSIONS

Research has indicated that gender stereotypes are still present among adolescents in Poland. Socio-demographic differences in this regard have been demonstrated, and attitudes geared towards less gender equality have been shown to be associated with worsening social engagement scores and general well-being. Adolescence is a critical period in the development of gender attitudes and behaviours, with the potential for lifelong consequences [39]. The dynamic changes that occur during adolescence provide opportunities to develop and implement actions aimed at promoting gender equality, in order to maximise positive outcomes during this period. As gender role perceptions vary by individual characteristics, family and neighbourhood context, more attention should be paid to social groups achieving lower levels of the GRPS index as confirmed in the multivariate model (residents of rural areas, young people from poor families, underperforming students). If society wants to evolve, it needs to understand that all children are individuals who should be allowed to fulfil their inner potential, regardless of whether it corresponds to what they should be in the eyes of society.

Disclosure

The authors report no conflict of interest.

References