INTRODUCTION
In December 2019, a COVID-19 pandemic began in China, then spread around the world. Studies conducted since then have already shown the negative consequences of the long-term worldwide pandemic situation for mental health in different populations and occupational groups. A number of reports have been published showing significant deterioration in mental health. They have revealed increasing stress, poor well-being, and depressive and anxiety symptoms [1, 2]. Teachers are one such socially important group. Long-term stress and a sudden change in the professional situation are also significant risk factors for teachers’ psychosocial functioning. Teaching is usually considered a stressful type of work, but because of the pandemic reality (distance education, limited access to social support), teachers’ stress might have intensified [3]. An impressive body of evidence suggests an increased prevalence of anxiety and depression among teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic [4].
Over the past few years, traditional classroom learning has transitioned towards remote learning. According to UNESCO, the unexpected closure of schools and the transition to learning platforms represent a psychological burden for teachers associated with frustration, uncertainty, and separation [5]. The shift to remote learning was not sudden everywhere; in some countries, teachers already had experience with remote learning. Remote learning in Poland was introduced suddenly during the pandemic. Until then, e-learning had never been introduced into schools in such a short time. For this reason, in Poland, remote learning has been called crisis e-learning [6]. Most Polish teachers had no experience with e-learning.
Research conducted among teachers in Poland showed deficiencies in technological preparation (lack of computers and stable access to the Internet) and methodical preparation in transferring traditional methods to the digital world, and lack of sufficient digital competencies [6-8]. Moreover, Polish teachers are exposed to mental health problems due to the large number of stressors, such as long-term distance teaching, isolation in problem-solving, and forced adaptation to providing online classes.
Research on education during the pandemic has shown that the teachers who were forced to shift to remote teaching experienced various technical barriers and had different skill levels. In addition, some lacked appropriate equipment or experience using digital tools, and there were no adapted programs for remote learning [9]. Studies on the mental health of this professional group show an increase in the level of stress [10-14], as well as anxiety and depression [11, 12], and a deterioration in well-being [13].
One of the essential factors for stress levels and their consequences for mental health is stress-coping strategies. Coping strategies are therefore divided into adaptive/functional strategies (focused on solving the problem, i.e., active coping or planning) and non-adaptive/dysfunctional, i.e., focused on emotions (discharging negative emotions) and avoidance (ignoring the problem, denying it). Adaptive strategies are the following: positive reframing, planning, active coping, seeking emotional and instrumental support, acceptance, religion, and humor. On the other hand, non-adaptive strategies are as follows: self-blame, behavioral disengagement, venting, substance use, self-distraction, and denial. The use of non-adaptive strategies is associated with worsening mental health and symptoms of depression [15]. A few studies suggest that adaptive strategies focused on problems are associated with better mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic [16]; therefore, it is crucial to investigate which coping strategies are protective factors in the current situation and what risk factors may affect mental health.
Another important factor related to the severity of stress and symptoms of depression is personality traits. The relationships between personality traits and stress coping suggest individual differences in feeling and behavior, which translate into coping with stress in either adaptive or non-adaptive strategies [17]. One of the most widely used personality theories is the Big Five [18, 19]. It distinguishes the following personality traits: emotional stability/neuroticism, extraversion/introversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. High neuroticism causes adaptation to new situations and coping with stress difficult and entails conductive use of coping strategies focused on emotions rather than problems [20, 21]. However, people with high openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness tend to use active problem-focused coping during the COVID-19 pandemic [22]. It seems that such chronic stress and lack of coping skills can lead to serious mental problems. In 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced the end of the pandemic. However, newly emerging mutations of the virus and other diseases continue to spread in different parts of the world. In such an epidemiological situation, further pandemics cannot be ruled out in the future. Based on historical experience and current reports, the next pandemic is a matter of when, not if [23]. Therefore, it is crucial to assess what factors are associated with the severity of stress, anxiety, and depression in order to introduce suitable interventions.
Our research aimed to assess which psychosocial factors, coping strategies, and personality traits predict the severity of depressive and anxiety symptoms among teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. We narrowed the question of teachers’ mental health predictors to stressors (work, family, friends- and COVID-19-related factors), coping strategies, and personality traits.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
PARTICIPANTS
The study included 2,757 educational staff workers, of whom 2,372 (86%) were female, 381 (13.8%) were male, and 4 (0.1%) were other. According to data from the Central Statistical Office (Polish CSO; www.stat.gov.pl), there are almost 499,000 educators in Poland; the vast majority are women, with only about 89,000 male teachers. The mean age was 46.14 years (SD = 9.35). Most participants were married (n = 1,928, 69.9%) and had obtained a higher master’s degree (n = 2,628, 95.3%) (Table 1).
Most respondents did not suffer from chronic illnesses (n = 1,878, 68.1%); 21.8% had a chronic physical illness, 4% had a mental illness, and 1.8% had both. Almost all employees (97.9%) had a contract of employment and worked in public institutions (94.8%); 38.8% of respondents (n = 1069) were employed in primary schools (grades 4-8), and 34% worked at the secondary level of education. The mean teaching experience in the sample was 20.94 years (SD = 10.60). The teachers worked in different regions of Poland: in villages (22.3%), small towns (up to 20,000 inhabitants – 13.9%), medium-sized towns (20,000 – 100,000 inhabitants – 21.2%), large cities (more than 100,000 inhabitants – 15.2%), very large cities (more than 350,000 inhabitants – 14.3%), and the capital city, Warsaw (13.1%) (Table 1).
PROCEDURE
This observational, cross-sectional national study covered teachers of all educational levels. The survey was conducted in Poland from March 3 to April 11, 2021. Invitations to participate in the study were sent to primary, secondary, vocational, and technical schools and educational centers’ principals. The study was conducted following the guidelines of The Maria Grzegorzewska University Ethics Committee (approval number: 13/2021) and the 1964 Helsinki Declaration, as amended. The procedures and instructions for the questionnaires were clearly explained. The individuals consented to participate in the survey by ticking a box. Participants could withdraw from the survey without explaining their reasons. Confidentiality was maintained by omitting personal identifiers. The invitation to the study (information and a link to the study) was sent to all e-mail addresses of schools in Poland, which were available on the Ministry of Education and Science website.
During recruitment, school/ educational center principals sent information letters and Google Form links to teachers. The teachers who participated in the study filled out online semi-structured questionnaires regarding their sociodemographic data, critical life events, pandemic worries, different kinds of stressors, and psychopathological symptoms (i.e., general health, depression, stress, anxiety), stress-coping strategies, and personality traits.
METHODS
General mental health – A Polish version of Goldberg’s 30-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30) [24] was used. GHQ is a screening instrument for assessing the mental health of adults in the general population. It allows us to estimate non-psychotic disorders’ severity and identify a significant likelihood of their occurrence.
Coping strategies – A Polish version of the BRIEF-COPE Questionnaire was used [25, 26]. It consists of 28 statements that form part of 14 strategies (2 statements for each strategy), such as active coping, planning, denial, positive reframing, acceptance, sense of humor, turning to religion, substance use, seeking emotional support, seeking of instrumental support, behavioral disengagement, venting, and self-blame. The results were assessed for each scale separately.
Personality – A Polish version of the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI-PL) [27, 28] was used to assess personality traits in the Big Five model [18]. It allows for evaluation of five personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness.
Sociodemographic, work-related, and COVID-19-related variables – Sociodemographic data were collected on biological sex, age, marital and parental status, employment status, primary work location, level of the education system, place of residence, and years of teaching experience. Teachers provided information about their medical problems (mental and somatic chronic diseases). Moreover, we collected data on COVID-19 diagnosis, fear of adverse health consequences, and change of working mode during the pandemic.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Tables 1 and 2 provide descriptive statistics for sociodemographic characteristics, stressors, stress-coping strategies, and personality traits. We employed a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses to examine the unique contributions of types of stressors, coping strategies, and personality traits to explain the variation of general functioning, relationship difficulties, and the severity of anxiety and depression (factors of GHQ-30). The regression analysis was performed by entering three separate blocks of independent variables.
The additional variance of anxiety, stress, and depression may be explained by stress-coping and personality traits after accounting for the variance related to stressors experienced by participants.
The categorical variables were recoded using the Dummy Coding method.
Variance inflation factors (VIFs) were calculated [29]. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 25 for Windows (IBM Corp., released 2017). The significance level was set at p < 0.05 in all statistical tests.
RESULTS
The sociodemographic characteristics of the study sample and descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1.
PERSONALITY AND STRESS-RELATED CHARACTERISTICS
The most commonly reported stressors were limited interaction with students (n = 1,537, 55.7%), family’s and/or friends’ health (n = 1,458, 52.9%), and the pandemic situation in general (n = 1,383, 50.2%). More than half of the teachers (n = 1377, 52.9%) became stressed about expected future consequences (e.g., exam problems, emotional difficulties of students), limited opportunities to go out (n = 1,171, 42.5%), and limited opportunities to meet friends (n = 1265, 45.9%). The fewest teachers felt stressed about relationships with parents, friends, and/or neighbors (n = 223, 8.1%), children (n = 347, 12.6%), and partner/spouse (n = 335, 12.2%). Planning, acceptance, and active coping were the most preferred stress-coping strategies. At the same time, psychoactive substance use, denial, and behavioral disengagement were reported as the least frequently chosen ways of coping (Table 2).
RESULTS OF HIERARCHICAL REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR TYPES OF STRESSORS, STRESS-COPING STRATEGIES, AND PERSONALITY TRAITS AS PREDICTORS OF DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY (GHQ-30)
We used hierarchical regression analysis to predict the level of teachers’ anxiety and depression as a function of types of stressors (model 1), stress-coping strategies (model 2), and personality traits (model 3). The results are presented in Table 3.
Model 1 accounted for a significant amount of the variance in the teachers’ depression and anxiety subscale, F(18, 2,738) = 45.08, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.229, and for 22.9% of the variance of depression and anxiety. The results also indicated that the inclusion of stress-coping strategies into the model helped explain an additional 21.8% of the variation in the depression and anxiety subscale, DF(14, 2,724) = 76.77, DR2 = 0.218, p < 0.001. Including personality traits in model 3 explained an additional 9.6% of the variation in the depression and anxiety factor, DF(5, 2,719) = 113.62, DR2 = 0.096, p < 0.001.
The analysis shows that when all variables were included in the model, teachers who were stressed about the pandemic showed higher depression and anxiety than those who did not (β = 0.08, t = 5.37, p < 0.001). Worrying about family’s and/or friends’ health (β = 0.04, t = 3.03, p = 0.002), one’s health (β = 0.06, t = 4.47, p < 0.001), and finances (β = 0.05, t = 3.59, p < 0.001) was a significant predictor of depression and anxiety (Table 3).
The analysis indicated that among remote working/teaching-related stressors, technical issues (β = 0.05, t = 3.28, p = 0.001), work time demands (β = 0.10, t = 6.67, p < 0.001), expected future consequences (e.g. exam problems, emotional difficulties of students) (β = 0.04, t = 2.79, p = 0.005), and limited support from school managers (β = 0.04, t = 2.12, p = 0.034) were significant predictors of higher severity of depression and anxiety in the study population. The other stressors significant for this factor were relationships with partner/spouse (β = 0.04, t = 2.53, p = 0.012), children (β = 0.06, t = 4.10, p < 0.001), and co-workers (β = 0.06, t = 4.30, p < 0.001).
Regarding stress-coping strategies, seeking emotional support (β = –0.08, t = –4.02, p < 0.001), positive reframing (β = –0.04, t = –2.32, p = 0.020), acceptance (β = –0.05, t = –3.12, p = 0.002), and sense of humor (β = –0.06, t = –4.07, p < 0.001) were predictors of lower depression and anxiety. On the other hand, the teachers who employed self-blame (β = 0.13, t = 8.38, p < 0.001), denial (β = 0.04, t = 2.82, p = 0.005), self-distraction (β = 0.06, t = 3.87, p < 0.001), behavioral disengagement (β = 0.04, t = 2.75, p = 0.006), psychoactive substance use (β = 0.06, t = 5.72, p < 0.001) and focus on and venting of emotions (β = 0.07, t = 4.36, p < 0.001) obtained worse results on the depression and anxiety subscale.
Among the personality domain scores, lower extraversion (β = –0.08, t = –4.66, p < 0.001) and emotional stability (β = –0.35, t = –20.73, p < 0.001) predicted higher scores on the depression and anxiety subscale after accounting for all the variables.
DISCUSSION
Teachers in Poland experienced at least mild levels of stress, anxiety, and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic [3]. This study identified several significant predictors of anxiety and depression levels during this challenging period. Some of the statistically significant factors were directly and indirectly related to the current pandemic situation. Other factors, however, were relatively constant, such as personality traits and stress- coping strategies.
Higher levels of depression and anxiety occurred in teachers who experienced more substantial stress from the pandemic and were more worried about their health, family and friends’ health, and financial status. It was confirmed in other studies [12, 30] that the levels of teachers’ depression were higher if they had children and a family member with COVID-19. The levels of anxiety and depression were also elevated when the respondents had a chronic disease, and higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression were associated with living with a person with a chronic illness.
The work-related predictors of anxiety and depression were remote teaching, work time demands, expected negative consequences of online teaching in the future (e.g., problems with exams, emotional difficulties of students), and limited support from school managers. A study by Klapproth et al. [10] suggested that the duration of remote teaching was primarily associated with increased stress. On the other hand, recognized barriers to successful teaching were a lack of access to computer hardware, the excessive workload for students and parents, low motivation of students and parents, poor housing conditions, limited digital competence, and poor work management by schools and teachers. Another study [30] showed that 54% of teachers experienced burnout during COVID-19. Risk factors for burnout were similar to predictors of anxiety and depression indicated in our study (e.g., lack of proficiency in new information and communication technologies, the conflict between work and family, little social support from school managers, colleagues, and family members, and the workload of distance teaching). Other stressors associated with higher anxiety and depression included worsening relationships with one’s partner/spouse, children, and co-workers. Teachers who used positive stress-coping strategies had lower levels of anxiety and depression than those implementing negative stress-coping strategies.
In-depth analyses indicated that some variables (e.g., work time demands, limited support from school managers, difficulties in relationships with a partner/spouse, with children and co-workers, and coping strategies) also explained other GHQ-30 subscales: general functioning and interpersonal relationships (see Supplementary materials).
Coping strategies also proved essential predictors that recurred in the three models described. For example, coping strategies such as seeking emotional support, turning to religion, positive reframing, and a sense of humor were associated with better general functioning, beneficial interpersonal relationships (see Supplementary material), and lower levels of anxiety and depression.
On the other hand, coping strategies such as self-blame, behavioral disengagement, psychoactive substance use, and venting of emotions were associated with deterioration of general functioning and interpersonal relationships, and higher levels of anxiety and depression. Interestingly, a lower level of anxiety and depression was associated with an acceptance strategy and a higher level of self-distraction. The above result aligns with the study underlining the role of emotional mindfulness in increasing mental well-being [31]. A higher level of self-distraction can be a very adaptive strategy during the pandemic and lockdown when there is no possibility of changing the situation.
Our results suggested that seeking emotional support and turning to religion were successful adaptation strategies. In the Polish context, religion may function as a source of consolation and spiritual support for many individuals, although its role and significance vary depending on cultural, social, and personal factors. On the other hand, self-blame, behavioral disengagement, substance use, and venting of emotions are, in this study, predictors of poorer general functioning and interpersonal relationships and higher levels of anxiety and depression.
It is essential to understand the current coping strategies used by teachers to determine who needs psychological support the most during the ongoing pandemic and after it ends. These results are similar to those obtained in studies of language teachers during the pandemic [32]. It was determined that teachers at that time most often used acceptance, planning, positive reframing, active coping and self-distraction, and seeking emotional support. The researchers concluded that seeking emotional support is an active and adaptive coping strategy rather than problem-focused coping, which corresponds to our findings. Furthermore, evidence shows that teachers who reported higher levels of loneliness also displayed higher levels of anxiety and depression symptoms [4]. Also, the planning strategy was a factor in worsening well-being and increasing anxiety and stress. According to the researchers, this is due to the uncertain and uncontrolled pandemic, which often requires quick responses where planning does not work.
In the research of Klapproth et al. [10], teachers used so-called functional (adaptive) and dysfunctional (non-adaptive) coping strategies when experiencing stress in a pandemic situation. The higher the stress level, the more often they used both strategies. Therefore, understanding the coping strategies can help identify teacher resources to reduce mental stress in the protracted COVID-19 pandemic or future pandemics and their long-term consequences. These features are conducive to increased anxiety and a constant sense of danger, which can lead to psychological discomfort, depressed mood, irritability, as well as depressive or psychosomatic reactions in a pandemic situation. In addition, people in high-stress situations often use non-adaptive coping strategies and are at risk of developing PTSD, burnout, and even addiction to psychoactive substances and drugs [33].
Of the teachers’ personality traits, introversion and neuroticism (emotional instability) were the essential predictors of their higher levels of anxiety and depression, as well as their general functioning and interpersonal relationships. Similar results, but in the general population, were obtained by other researchers [34]. They also showed that neuroticism is associated with the use of immature and neurotic defense mechanisms and difficulties in adapting to pandemic conditions, which increases vulnerability to experiencing negative emotions. Another study found that people with high neuroticism experienced more negative influences in their daily lives during the pandemic [35]. It was also reported that higher levels of neuroticism were associated with more substantial pandemic anxiety along with pandemic-related negative consequences, including its pessimistic evaluation [36]. To sum up, especially teachers with neurotic traits in a situation of chronic stress are more likely to develop mental disorders due to the use of non-adaptive coping strategies and the intensification of negative emotions. On the other hand, higher levels of openness and conscientiousness were associated with a reduced negative impact of the pandemic on mental health [17]. Therefore, a specific life event, such as a pandemic, can be experienced differently depending on an individual’s level of emotional stability and their use of adaptive coping strategies.
The findings of this study need to be interpreted in the context of some limitations, even though our study was designed nationwide. The sampling technique that relies on digital infrastructure and voluntary participation could increase selection bias. For example, the only teachers who had the opportunity to participate were those with internet access. Limitations of this study include the cross-sectional design. There was no follow-up, so it is not possible to compare the pre- and post-pandemic results or follow the changes in mental well-being.
CONCLUSIONS
This study identified many essential predictors of higher levels of depression and anxiety among teachers. In addition, it should be considered that the unpredictable circumstances of the pandemic can negatively affect existing resources and adaptive stress-coping strategies and change psychological reactions.
Therefore, understanding the risk factors and the protection of teachers’ mental health will allow for the selection of therapeutic methods that consider their reactions and behavior in remote teaching situations caused by the pandemic.
Developing work techniques will help reduce negative emotions and apply a beneficial stress-coping strategy in a long-term pandemic. Studies have shown that medical staff and teachers are exposed to the adverse effects associated with chronic stress in COVID-19. Furthermore, long-term stress and non-adaptive coping strategies are risk factors for mental health problems such as depressive disorders, PTSD, and burnout.
Deterioration of the mental health of this professional group has direct and indirect influences on the mental condition and the process of education of students. The presented research and the cited studies highlight the need to protect teachers’ mental health and improve their remote teaching skills. Interventions, including mindfulness methods, may be beneficial due to their central role in the reappraisal and acceptance.
DISCLOSURE
The authors report no conflict of interest.
1. Vindegaard N, Benros ME. COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: systematic review of the current evidence. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 89: 531-542. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi. 2020.05.048.
2.
Turna J, Zhang J, Lamberti N, et al. Anxiety, depression and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic: results from a cross-sectional survey. J Psychiatr Res 2021; 137: 96-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.02.059.
3.
Jakubowski TD, Sitko-Dominik MM. Teachers’ mental health during the first two waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland. PLoS One 2021; 16(9): e0257252. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone. 0257252.
4.
Tadesse T, Fischer MR, Ataro G, et al. Prevalence of anxiety and depression symptoms among University teachers in Ethiopia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Healthcare (Basel) 2024; 12(16): 1649. DOI: 10.3390/healthcare12161649.
5.
UNESCO. Adverse consequences of school closures. Available from: https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/consequences (accessed: 15 May 2025).
6.
Tomczyk Ł, Walker C. The emergency (crisis) e-learning as a challenge for teachers in Poland. Educ Inf Technol (Dordr) 2021; 26(6): 6847-6877. DOI: 10.1007/s10639-021-10539-7.
7.
Korzycka M, Bójko M, Radiukiewicz K, et al. Demographic analysis of difficulties related to remote education in Poland from the perspective of adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ann Agric Environ Med 2021; 28(1): 149-157.
8.
Panskyi T, Korzeniewska E, Serwach M, et al. New realities for Polish primary school informatics education affected by COVID-19. Educ Inf Technol (Dordr) 2022; 27(4): 5005-5032. DOI: 10.1007/s10639-021-10778-8.
9.
Tadesse S, Muluye W. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education system in developing countries: a review. Open J Soc Sci 2020; 8(10): 159-170.
10.
Klapproth F, Federkeil L, Heinschke F, et al. Teachers’ experiences of stress and their coping strategies during COVID-19 induced distance teaching. J Pedagogical Res 2020; 4(4): 444-452.
11.
Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res 2020; 288: 112954. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112954.
12.
Santamaria MD, Mondragon NI, Santxo NB, et al. Teacher stress, anxiety and depression at the beginning of the academic year during the COVID-19 pandemic. Glob Ment Health (Camb) 2021; 8: e14. DOI: 10.1017/gmh.2021.14.
13.
Hidalgo-Andrade P, Hermosa-Bosano C, Paz C. Teachers’ mental health and self-reported coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador: a mixed-methods study. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2021; 14: 933-944. DOI: 10.2147/PRBM.S314844.
14.
Stachteas P, Stachteas C. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on secondary school teachers. Psychiatriki 2020; 31(4): 293-301.
15.
Meyer B. Coping with severe mental illness: relations of the Brief COPE with symptoms, functioning, and well-being. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 2001; 23(4): 265-277.
16.
Rogowska AM, Kuśnierz C, Bokszczanin A. Examining anxiety, life satisfaction, general health, stress and coping styles during COVID-19 pandemic in polish sample of university students. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2020; 13: 797-811. DOI: 10.2147/PRBM.S266511.
17.
Zainah M, Muhammad Nur Akmal A, Nor Syazwani AA, et al. Adult personality and its relationship with stress level and coping mechanism among final year medical students. Medicine & Health 2019; 14 (2): 154-167.
18.
Costa PT Jr, McCrae RR. Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: the NEO Personality Inventory. Psychol Assess 1992; 4(1): 5-13. DOI: 10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.5.
19.
Costa PT Jr, McCrae RR. Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: the NEO Personality Inventory. In: Matthews G, Saklofske DH (eds.). The SAGE Handbook of Personality Theory and Assessment, Vol. 2. Personality measurement and testing. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks 2008, pp. 179-198. DOI: 10.4135/9781849200479.n9.
20.
Carver CS, Connor-Smith J. Personality and coping. Annu Rev Psychol 2010; 61: 679-704.
21.
Hengartner MP, Van der Linden D, Bohleber L, von Wyl A. Big five personality traits and the general factor of personality as moderators of stress and coping reactions following an emergency alarm on a Swiss university campus. Stress Health 2017; 33(1): 35-44.
22.
Agbaria Q, Mokh AA. Coping with stress during the coronavirus outbreak: the contribution of big five personality traits and social support. Int J Ment Health Addict 2022; 20(3): 1854-1872. DOI: 10.1007/s11469-021-00486-2.
23.
Harvard TH. Chan School of Public Health. The next pandemic: not if, but when. Available from: https://hsph.harvard.edu/news/next-pandemic-not-if-but-when (accessed:15 May 2025).
24.
Goldberg DP. The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire: a technique for the identification and assessment of non-psychotic psychiatric illness. London, New York, Oxford Univ Press 1972.
25.
Carver CS. You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: consider the Brief COPE. Int J Behav Med 1997; 4(1): 92-100.
26.
Juczyński Z, Ogińska-Bulik N. Mini-COPE – Inwentarz do pomiaru radzenia sobie ze stresem [Mini-COPE – Stress Coping Inventory]. In: Juczyński Z, Ogińska-Bulik N (eds.). Narzędzia pomiaru stresu i radzenia sobie ze stresem [Stress measurement and coping tools]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych PTP, Warszawa 2009: 45-58.
27.
Gosling SD, Rentfrow PJ, Swann WB Jr. A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. J Res Pers 2003; 37(6): 504-528.
28.
Sorokowska A, Słowińska A, Zbieg A, et al. Polska adaptacja testu Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) – TIPI-PL – wersja standardowa i internetowa [Polish adaptation of the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) test – TIPI-PL – standard and online version]. WrocLab, Wrocław 2014. DOI: 10.13140/ 2.1.4811.5521.
29.
Hair JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, et al. Multivariate data analysis. Pearson Prentice Hall, New York 1995.
30.
Amri A, Abidli Z, Elhamzaoui M, et al. Assessment of burnout among primary teachers in confinement during the COVID-19 period in Morocco: case of the Kenitra. Pan Afr Med J 2020; 35(Suppl 2): 92. DOI: 10.11604/pamj.supp.2020.35.2.24345.
31.
Timko Olson ER, Hansen MM, Vermeesch A. Mindfulness and Shinrin-Yoku: potential for physiological and psychological interventions during uncertain times. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(24): 9340. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249340.
32.
MacIntyre PD, Gregersen T, Mercer S. Language teachers’ coping strategies during the COVID-19 conversion to online teaching: correlations with stress and well-being. System 2020; 94: 102352. DOI: 10.1016/j.system.2020.102352.
33.
Gruber J, Prinstein MJ, Clark LA, et al. Mental health and clinical psychological science in the time of COVID-19: challenges, opportunities, and a call to action. Am Psychol 2021; 76(3): 409-426. DOI: 10.1037/amp0000707.
34.
Gori A, Topino E, Di Fabio A. The protective role of life satisfaction, coping strategies and defense mechanisms on perceived stress due to COVID-19 emergency: a chained mediation model. PLoS One 2020; 15(11): e0242402. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242402.
35.
Kroencke L, Geukes K, Utesch T, et al. Neuroticism and emotional risk during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Res Pers 2020; 89: 104038. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104038.
36.
Aschwanden D, Strickhouser JE, Sesker AA, et al. Psychological and behavioural responses to coronavirus disease 2019: the role of personality. Eur J Pers 2020. DOI: 10.1002/per.2281.
This is an Open Access journal, all articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
