Biology of Sport

Starters and substitute players’ appearance and performance in penalty shootouts in major international football tournaments for men and women before and after the 5+1 substitution rule

Mourad Amraoui 1
,
Sebastian Høyvik Skjold 2
,
Xiaobin Wei 3
,
Peter Krustrup 1, 4, 5
,
Geir Jordet 2

  1. Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Sport and Health Sciences Cluster (SHSC), University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

  2. Norwegian School of Sport Sciences (NIH), Oslo, Norway

  3. Division of Sports Science and Physical Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

  4. Danish Institute for Advanced Study (DIAS), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

  5. Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom

Biol Sport. 2027;44:239–246

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2027.165057
Data publikacji online: 2026/10/13
Article file
16_05621_Article.pdf
  1. International Football Association Board. IFAB Laws of the Game 1970–71. 1970. Available from: https://downloads.theifab .com/downloads/laws-of-the-game-1970 -71?l=en.
  2. Nassis GP, Massey A, Jacobsen P, et al. Elite football of 2030 will not be the same as that of 2020: preparing players, coaches, and support staff for the evolution. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2020; 30(6):962–964.
  3. Nassis GP, Brito J, Tomás R, et al. Elite women’s football: evolution and challenges for the years ahead. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2022; 32(Suppl 1):7–11.
  4. Mohr M, Ermidis G, Jamurtas AZ, et al. Extended match time exacerbates fatigue and impacts physiological responses in male soccer players. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2023; 55(1):80–92.
  5. Dalton K, Guillon M, Naroo SA. An analysis of penalty kicks in elite football post 1997. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2015; 10(5):815–827. doi: 10.1260/1747 -9541.10.5.815.
  6. Ryall E. Good games and penalty shoot-outs. Sport Ethics Philos. 2015; 9(2):205–213. doi: 10.1080/1751 1321.2015.1020854.
  7. Vollmer S, Schoch D, Brandes U. Penalty shoot-outs are tough, but the alternating order is fair. PLoS One. 2024; 19(12):e0315017.
  8. Jordet G, Elferink-Gemser MT. Stress, coping and emotions on the world stage: the experience of participating in a major soccer tournament penalty shootout. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2012; 24(1):73–91. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2011.619000.
  9. International Football Association Board. Five substitutes option temporarily allowed for competition organisers. Published May 8, 2020. Available from: https://www. theifab.com/news/five -substitutes-optiontemporarily-allowed -for-competition-organisers/.
  10. International Football Association Board. Laws of the Game 2022/23. 2022. Available from: https://www.theifab.com /downloads/laws-of-the-game-2022 -23?l=en.
  11. Wei X, Shu Y, Liu J, Chmura P, Randers MB, Krustrup P. Analysing substitutions in recent World Cups and European Championships in male and female elite football: influence of new substitution rules. Biol Sport. 2024; 41(3):267–274.
  12. Jordet G, Hartman E, Visscher C, Lemmink KA. Kicks from the penalty mark in soccer: the roles of stress, skill, and fatigue for kick outcomes. J Sports Sci. 2007; 25(2):121–129.
  13. Almeida CH, Volossovitch A. Multifactorial analysis of football penalty kicks in the Portuguese First League: a replication study. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2023; 18(1):160–175. doi: 10.1177/17479541221075722.
  14. Santos RM. Gender differences in the determinants of choking under pressure: evidence from penalty kicks in soccer. Soc Sci Q. 2024; 105:1296–1307.
  15. Correia M, Rosado A. Anxiety in athletes: gender and type of sport differences. Int J Psychol Res (Medellin). 2019; 12(1):9–17. doi: 10.21500/20112084.3552.
  16. Bates D, Mächler M, Bolker B, Walker S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw. 2015;67(1):1–48.
  17. Snijders TAB, Bosker RJ. Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modeling. 2nd ed. Sage; 2012.
  18. Lenth RV. emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means. R package version 1.10.0. 2024. Available from: https://CRAN.R-project .org/package=emmeans.
  19. Wei X, Zhao Y, Chen H, Chmura P, Randers MB, Krustrup P. Goal scoring patterns in the FIFA World Cup 2022 group stage: more goals by substitute players, but no effect of more stoppage time. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2024; 64(2):121–128. doi: 10.23736/S0022-4707.23.15296-0.
  20. Martinho DV, Gonzalo-Skok O, Gómez-Ruano MA, et al. Substitutions in elite soccer: a scoping review. Int J Perform Anal Sport. 2026; 26(3):1–25. doi: 10.1080/24748668 .2026.2635275.
  21. UEFA. Biggest Women’s EURO crowds and UEFA women’s competition crowds. 2025. Available from: https://www.uefa.com/ womenseuro/news/0276-1574 8cb0ba74-f342af5f57b8-1000--biggest -women-s-euro-crowds-and-uefa-women -s-competition-c/. 
  22. FIFA. FIFA Women’s World Cup Australia & New Zealand 2023: key metrics. 2025. Available from: https://inside.fifa .com/womens-football/fwwc-impact /contributing-areas#key-metrics.
  23. Aiken LS, West SG. Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Sage Publications; 1991.
Copyright: Institute of Sport. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This license enables reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license allows for commercial use.
SUBMIT YOUR PAPER
Share
without publication fees
Integrated with
Editorial Policies
Sarajevo Declaration on Integrity and Visibility of Scholarly Publications