Biol Sport. 2025;42(4):241–259
1. Hagerman FC, Walsh SJ, Staron RS, Hikida RS, Gilders RM, Murray TF, et al. Effects of high-intensity resistance training on untrained older men. I. Strength, cardiovascular, and metabolic responses. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2000;55(7):B336-B46.
2.
Strasser B, Schobersberger W. Evidence for resistance training as a treatment therapy in obesity. J Obes. 2011;2011(1):482564.
3.
Seguin R, Nelson ME. The benefits of strength training for older adults. American Am J Prev Med. 2003;25(3):141-9.
4.
Buchheit M, Chivot A, Parouty J, Mercier D, Al Haddad H, Laursen PB, et al. Monitoring endurance running performance using cardiac parasympathetic function. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;108(6):1153-67. Epub 20091222. doi: 10.1007/s00421-009- 1317-x.
5.
Domínguez R, Cuenca E, Maté-MuñozJL, García-Fernández P, Serra-Paya N, Estevan MCL, et al. Effects of beetroot juice supplementation on cardiorespiratory endurance in athletes. A systematic review. Nutrients. 2017;9(1):43.
6.
Poon ET, Iu JC, Sum WM, Wong PS, Lo KK, Ali A, et al. Dietary Nitrate Supplementation and Exercise Performance: An Umbrella Review of 20 Published Systematic Reviews with Meta analyses. Sports Med. 2025. Epub 20250314. doi: 10.1007/s40279-025- 02194-6.
7.
Stoica F, Râpeanu G, Rațu RN, Stănciuc N, Croitoru C, Țopa D, et al. Red Beetroot and Its By-Products: A Comprehensive Review of Phytochemicals, Extraction Methods, Health Benefits, and Applications. Agriculture. 2025;15(3):270. doi:10.3390/agriculture15030270.
8.
Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Gladwin MT. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2008;7(2):156-167. doi:10.1038/nrd2466.
9.
Bailey SJ, Fulford J, Vanhatalo A, Winyard PG, Blackwell JR, DiMenna FJ, et al. Dietary nitrate supplementation enhances muscle contractile efficiency during knee-extensor exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2010;109(1):135-48.
10.
Ferguson SK, Hirai DM, Copp SW, Holdsworth CT, Allen JD, Jones AM, et al. Impact of dietary nitrate supplementation via beetroot juice on exercising muscle vascular control in rats. J Phyiol. 2013;591(2):547-57.
11.
Mosher SL, Sparks SA, Williams EL, Bentley DJ, Mc Naughton LR. Ingestion of a nitric oxide enhancing supplement improves resistance exercise performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(12):3520-4.
12.
Tan R, Pennell A, Karl ST, Cass JK, Go K, Clifford T, et al. Effects of dietary nitrate supplementation on back squat and bench press performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2023;15(11):2493.
13.
Lansley KE, Winyard PG, Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Wilkerson DP, Blackwell JR, et al. Acute dietary nitrate supplementation improves cycling time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(6):1125-31.
14.
Wylie LJ, Bailey SJ, Kelly J, Blackwell JR, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM. Influence of beetroot juice supplementation on intermittent exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2016;116:415-25.
15.
Siervo M, Lara J, Ogbonmwan I, Mathers JC. Inorganic nitrate and beetroot juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Nutr. 2013;143(6):818-26.
16.
Williams TD, Martin MP, Mintz JA, Rogers RR, Ballmann CG. Effect of acute beetroot juice supplementation on bench press power, velocity, and repetition volume. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;34(4):924-8.
17.
Rodríguez-Fernández A, Castillo D, Raya-González J, Domínguez R, Bailey SJ. Beetroot juice supplementation increases concentric and eccentric muscle power output. Original investigation. J Sci Med Sport. 2021;24(1):80-4. Epub 20200527. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2020.05.018.
18.
Flanagan SD, Looney DP, Miller MJ, DuPont WH, Pryor L, Creighton BC, et al. The effects of nitrate-rich supplementation on neuromuscular efficiency during heavy resistance exercise. J Am Coll Nutr. 2016;35(2):100-7.
19.
Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, Ziegenfuss TN, Wildman R, Collins R, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):18.
20.
Wu G. Important roles of dietary taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine and 4-hydroxyproline in human nutrition and health. Amino Acids. 2020;52(3):329- 60.
21.
Zoladz JA, Korzeniewski B, Kulinowski P, Zapart-Bukowska J, Majerczak J, Jasiński A. Phosphocreatine recovery overshoot after high intensity exercise in human skeletal muscle is associated with extensive muscle acidification and a significant decrease in phosphorylation potential. J Physiol Sci. 2010;60(5):331-41.
22.
Harris RC, Söderlund K, Hultman E. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci. 1992;83(3):367-74.
23.
Ribeiro F, Longobardi I, Perim P, Duarte B, Ferreira P, Gualano B, et al. Timing of creatine supplementation around exercise: a real concern? Nutrients. 2021;13(8):2844.
24.
Greenhaff PL, Casey A, Short AH, Harris R, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Influence of oral creatine supplementation of muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man. Clin Sci. 1993;84(5):565-71.
25.
Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage F-X, Dutheil F. Creatine supplementation and lower limb strength performance: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Sports Med. 2015;45:1285-94.
26.
Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, Gualano B, Jagim AR, Kreider RB, et al. Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show? J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18:1-17.
27.
Wang Z, Qiu B, Li R, Han Y, Petersen C, Liu S, et al. Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength gains in adults< 50 years of age: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2024;16(21):3665.
28.
Volek JS, Kraemer WJ, Bush JA, Boetes M, Incledon T, Clark KL, et al. Creatine supplementation enhances muscular performance during high-intensity resistance exercise. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997;97(7):765-70. doi: 10.1016/s0002-8223(97)00189-2.
29.
Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Variables influencing the effectiveness of creatine supplementation as a therapeutic intervention for sarcopenia. Front Nutr. 2019;6:124.
30.
Robinson TM, Sewell DA, Hultman E, Greenhaff PL. Role of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(2):598-604.
31.
Rawson ES, Volek JS. Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2003;17(4):822-31.
32.
Forbes SC, Candow DG, Neto JHF, Kennedy MD, Forbes JL, Machado M, et al. Creatine supplementation and endurance performance: surges and sprints to win the race. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2023;20(1):2204071.
33.
Bemben MG, Lamont HS. Creatine supplementation and exerciseperformance: recent findings. Sports Med. 2005;35(2):107-25. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200535020- 00002.
34.
da Silva Azevedo AP, Acquesta FM, Lancha Jr AH, Bertuzzi R, Poortmans JR, Amadio AC, et al. Creatine supplementation can improve impact control in high-intensity interval training. Nutrition. 2019;61:99-104.
35.
Mielgo-Ayuso J, Calleja-Gonzalez J, Marqués-Jiménez D, Caballero-García A, Córdova A, Fernández-Lázaro D. Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Athletic Performance in Soccer Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2019;11(4). Epub 20190331. doi: 10.3390/ nu11040757.
36.
Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, et al. ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2010;7:1-43.
37.
Ranchal-Sanchez A, Diaz-Bernier VM, De La Florida-Villagran CA, Llorente Cantarero FJ, Campos-Perez J, Jurado-Castro JM. Acute effects of beetroot juice supplements on resistance training: A randomized double-blind crossover. Nutrients. 2020;12(7):1912.
38.
Trappe TA, White F, Lambert CP, Cesar D, Hellerstein M, Evans WJ. Effect of ibuprofen and acetaminophen on postexercise muscle protein synthesis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;282(3):E551-E556. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00352.2001
39.
Wylie LJ, Mohr M, Krustrup P, Jackman SR, Ermιdis G, Kelly J, et al. Dietary nitrate supplementation improves team sport-specific intense intermittent exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113:1673-84.
40.
Buford TW, Kreider RB, Stout JR, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: creatine supplementation and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007;4:6. doi:10.1186/1550-2783-4- 6
41.
Morán-Navarro R, Pérez CE, Mora Rodríguez R, de la Cruz-Sánchez E, González-Badillo JJ, Sánchez-Medina L, et al. Time course of recovery following resistance training leading or not to failure. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2017;117:2387-99.
42.
Ammar A, Chtourou H, Trabelsi K, Padulo J, Turki M, El Abed K, et al. Temporal specificity of training: intra-day effects on biochemical responses and Olympic-Weightlifting performances. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(4):358-68.
43.
Ammar A, Turki M, Chtourou H, Hammouda O, Trabelsi K, Kallel C, et al. Pomegranate supplementation accelerates recovery of muscle damage and soreness and inflammatory markers after a weightlifting training session. PLOS one. 2016;11(10):e0160305.
44.
Ammar A, Bailey SJ, Chtourou H, Trabelsi K, Turki M, Hökelmann A, et al. Effects of pomegranate supplementation on exercise performance and post exercise recovery in healthy adults: a systematic review. Br J Nutr. 2018;120(11):1201-16.
45.
Ammar A, Chtourou H, Souissi N. Effect of time-of-day on biochemical markers in response to physical exercise. J Strength Cond Res. 2017;31(1):272-82.
46.
Brown LE, Weir JP. ASEP procedures recommendation I: accurate assessment of muscular strength and power. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2001;4(3):1-21.
47.
Conceição F, Fernandes J, Lewis M, Gonzaléz-Badillo JJ, Jimenéz-Reyes P. Movement velocity as a measure of exercise intensity in three lower limb exercises. J Sports Sci. 2016;34(12):1099-106.
48.
González-Badillo JJ, Sánchez-Medina L. Movement velocity as a measure of loading intensity in resistance training. Int J Sports Med. 2010;31(05):347-52.
49.
Gallardo EJ, Coggan AR. What is in your beet juice? Nitrate and nitrite content of beet juice products marketed to athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2019;29(4):345-9.
50.
Govoni M, Jansson EÅ, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO. The increase in plasma nitrite after a dietary nitrate load is markedly attenuated by an antibacterial mouthwash. Nitric Oxide. 2008;19(4):333-7.
51.
Freitas de Salles B, Simao R, Miranda F, da Silva Novaes J, Lemos A, Willardson JM. Rest interval between sets in strength training. Sports Med. 2009;39:765-77.
52.
Sumaryanti S, Nugroho S, Visalim A, Ndayisenga J. Development of physical fitness test for mild intellectual disabilities aged 13-15 years. Jurnal Keolahragaan. 2022;10(2):227-38.
53.
Feuerbacher JF, Jacobs MW, Dragutinovic B, Goldmann J-P, Cheng S, Schumann M. Validity and test-retest reliability of the Vmaxpro sensor for evaluation of movement velocity in the deep squat. J Strength Cond Res. 2023;37(1):35-40.
54.
Boushel R, Piantadosi C. Near-infrared spectroscopy for monitoring muscle oxygenation. Acta Physiol Scand. 2000;168(4):615-22.
55.
Crum E, O’connor W, Van Loo L, Valckx M, Stannard S. Validity and reliability of the Moxy oxygen monitor during incremental cycling exercise. Eur J Sport Sci. 2017;17(8):1037-43.
56.
Goodwin ML, Harris JE, Hernández A, Gladden LB. Blood lactate measurements and analysis during exercise: a guide for clinicians. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2007;1(4):558-69.
57.
Forsyth J, Farrally M. A comparison of lactate concentration in plasma collected from the toe, ear, and fingertip after a simulated rowing exercise. Br J Sports Med. 2000;34(1):35-8.
58.
Crotty NM, Marie B, Nick M, Bernard D, and Fleming N. Reliability and Validity of the Lactate Pro 2 Analyzer. Meas Phys Educ Exerc Sci. 2021;25(3):202-11. doi: 10.1080/1091367X.2020.1865966.
59.
Vondrasek JD, Riemann BL, Grosicki GJ, Flatt AA. Validity and efficacy of the elite HRV smartphone application during slow-paced breathing. Sensors. 2024;23(23):9496.
60.
Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Rutkowski J, Lenz B, Dixon C, Timmer J, et al. Concurrent validation of the OMNI perceived exertion scale for resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(2):333-41. doi: 10.1249/01. Mss.0000048831.15016.2a.
61.
Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences: routledge; 2013.
62.
Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33(1):159-174.
63.
Hopkins WG. A scale of magnitudes for effect statistics. A New View of Statistics. Published 2002. https://www.sportsci. org/resource/stats/effectmag.html
64.
R Core Team R. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. 2020.
65.
Singmann H, Bolker B, Westfall J, Aust F. afex: Analysis of factorial experiments (Version R package version 0.16-1). Retrieved from CRAN R-project org/ package= afex. 2016.
66.
Noguchi K, Latif M, Thangavelu K, Konietschke F, Gel Y, Brunner E. nparLD: nonparametric analysis of longitudinal data in factorial experiments. R package version. 2011;1.
67.
Kassambara A. rstatix: Pipe-friendly framework for basic statistical tests. CRAN: Contributed Packages. 2019.
68.
Wickham H. Ggplot2: elegant graphics for data analysis Springer-Verlag, New York: ISBN 978-3-319-24277-4. 2016.
69.
Pérez-Castilla A, Ruiz-Alias SA, Ramirez-Campillo R, Miras-Moreno S, García-Pinillos F, Marcos-Blanco A. Acute Effect of Velocity-Based Resistance Training on Subsequent Endurance Running Performance: Volume and Intensity Relevance. Applied Sci. 2024;14(7):2736. doi:10.3390/ app14072736.
70.
Haugen ME, Vårvik FT, Larsen S, Haugen AS, van den Tillaar R, Bjørnsen T. Effect of free-weight vs. machine-based strength training on maximal strength, hypertrophy and jump performance - a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2023;15(1):103. doi:10.1186/ s13102-023-00713-4.
71.
Whitfield J, Gamu D, Heigenhauser GJF, et al. Beetroot Juice Increases Human Muscle Force without Changing Ca2+-Handling Proteins. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49(10):2016-2024. doi:10.1249/ MSS.0000000000001321.
72.
Rodríguez-Rodríguez S, Canet-Vintró M, López-de-Celis C, Shen-Chen Z, Caballero-Martínez I, García-Ribell E, et al. Immediate Effects of Focal Muscle Vibration on Squat Power and Velocity in Amateur Athletes: A Randomized Controlled Trial.J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2025;10(1):60.
73.
Olsen S, Aagaard P, Kadi F, Tufekovic G, Verney J, Olesen JL, et al. Creatine supplementation augments the increase in satellite cell and myonuclei number in human skeletal muscle induced by strength training. J Physiol. 2006;573(2):525-34.
74.
Nunes JP, Grgic J, Cunha PM, Ribeiro AS, Schoenfeld BJ, de Salles BF, et al. What influence does resistance exercise order have on muscular strength gains and muscle hypertrophy? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Sport Sci. 2021;21(2):149-57.
75.
Larsen FJ, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO, Ekblom B. Dietary nitrate reduces maximal oxygen consumption while maintaining work performance in maximal exercise. Free Radic Biol Med. 2010;48(2):342-7.
76.
Jones AM, Thompson C, Wylie LJ, Vanhatalo A. Dietary Nitrate and Physical Performance. Annu Rev Nutr. 2018;38:303-28. doi: 10.1146/ annurev-nutr-082117-051622.
77.
Stamler JS, Meissner G. Physiology of nitric oxide in skeletal muscle. Physiol Rev. 2001;81(1):209-237. doi:10.1152/physrev.2001.81.1.209.
78.
Thompson C, Vanhatalo A, Jell H, Fulford J, Carter J, Nyman L, et al. Dietary nitrate supplementation improves sprint and high-intensity intermittent running performance. Nitric Oxide. 2016;61:55- 61.
79.
Michael S, Graham KS, Davis GM Oam. Cardiac Autonomic Responses during Exercise and Post-exercise Recovery Using Heart Rate Variability and Systolic Time Intervals-A Review. Front Physiol. 2017;8:301. doi:10.3389/ fphys.2017.003011.
80.
Santos R, Bassit R, Caperuto E, Rosa LC. The effect of creatine supplementation upon inflammatory and muscle soreness markers after a 30km race. Life Sci. 2004;75(16):1917-24.
81.
Hautala AJ, Kiviniemi AM, Tulppo MP. Individual responses to aerobic exercise: the role of the autonomic nervous system. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2009;33(2):107-15.
82.
Shaffer F, Ginsberg JP. An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms. Front Public Health. 2017 Sep 28:5:258. doi: 10.3389/ fpubh.2017.00258.
83.
Nobrega AC, O’Leary D, Silva BM, Marongiu E, Piepoli MF, Crisafulli A. Neural regulation of cardiovascular response to exercise: role of central command and peripheral afferents. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:478965. doi: 10.1155/2014/478965.
84.
Donahue PT, Wilson SJ, Williams CC, Hill CM, Garner JC. Comparison of countermovement and squat jumps performance in recreationally trained males. Int J Exerc Sci. 2021;14(1):462.
85.
Cormie P, McGuigan MR, Newton RU. Developing maximal neuromuscular power: part 2—training considerations for improving maximal power production. Sports Med. 2011;41:125-46.
86.
Neteca J, Veseta U, Liepina I, Volgemute K, Dzintare M, Babarykin D. Effect of Beetroot Juice Supplementation on Aerobic Capacity in Female Athletes: A Randomized Controlled Study. Nutrients. 2025;17(1):63. PubMed PMID: doi:10.3390/nu17010063.
87.
Hoon MW, Jones AM, Johnson NA, Blackwell JR, Broad EM, Lundy B, et al. The effect of variable doses of inorganic nitrate-rich beetroot juice on simulated 2000-m rowing performance in trained athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9(4):615-20.
88.
Starbuck C, Eston RG. Exercise-induced muscle damage and the repeated bout effect: evidence for cross transfer. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112:1005-13.
89.
Sahlin K. Muscle energetics during explosive activities and potential effects of nutrition and training. Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 2):167-73.
90.
Rapoport BI. Metabolic factors limiting performance in marathon runners. PLoS Comput Biol. 2010 Oct 21;6(10):e1000960.
91.
Rossiter HB, Cannell ER, Jakeman PM. The effect of oral creatine supplementation on the 1000‐m performance of competitive rowers. J Sports Sci. 1996;14(2):175-9.
92.
Francaux M, Demeure R, Goudemant J-F, Poortmans J. Effect of exogenous creatine supplementation on muscle PCr metabolism. Int J Sports Med. 2000;21(02):139-45.
93.
Lemon PW. Dietary creatine supplementation and exercise performance: why inconsistent results? Can J Appl Physiol. 2002;27(6):663- 80.
94.
Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Sports Med. 2014;44(Suppl 1):35-45.
95.
Wylie LJ, Kelly J, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, Skiba PF, Winyard PG, et al. Beetroot juice and exercise: pharmacodynamic and dose-response relationships. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2013;115(3):325-36.
96.
Hunter A, Gibson CA, Mbambo Z, Lambert M, Noakes T. The effects of heat stress on neuromuscular activity during endurance exercise. Pflügers Archiv. 2002;444:738-43.
97.
Marcora SM. Do we really need a central governor to explain brain regulation of exercise performance? Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;104(5):929-31.
98.
Demant TW, Rhodes EC. Effects of creatine supplementation on exercise performance. Sports Med. 1999;28(1):49-60. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199928010- 00005. PubMed PMID: 10461712.
99.
Oliver JM, Joubert DP, Martin SE, Crouse SF. Oral creatine supplementation’s decrease of blood lactate during exhaustive, incremental cycling. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2013;23(3):252-8. Epub 20121119. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.23.3.252. PubMed PMID: 23164647.
100.
Hampson DB, St Clair Gibson A, Lambert MI, Noakes TD. The influence of sensory cues on the perception of exertion during exercise and central regulation of exercise performance. Sports Med. 2001;31(13):935-52. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200131130- 00004. PubMed PMID: 11708402.
101.
Kemp G. Lactate accumulation, proton buffering, and pH change in ischemically exercising muscle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;289(3):R895-901; author reply R4-10. doi: 10.1152/ ajpregu.00641.2004. PubMed PMID: 16105824.
Copyright: Institute of Sport. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This license enables reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license allows for commercial use.