Clinical and Experimental Hepatology
eISSN: 2449-8238
ISSN: 2392-1099
Clinical and Experimental Hepatology
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abstract:
Original paper

Campesterol induces apoptosis and inhibits proliferation in HepG2 liver cancer cells

Awais Altaf
1
,
Tahir Maqbool
1
,
Amber Hassan
2
,
Gul E. Nasreen
3
,
Mah G. Summan
4
,
Aisha Tahir
5
,
Urooj Iqbal
6
,
Dahlia S. Mirdad
7
,
Ebtihal Alharbi
8
,
Hussain Noorwali
9
,
Ali A. Mousa
10
,
Zayd Jastaniah
11
,
Nazia Koser
12

  1. Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
  2. European School of Molecular Medicine (SEMM), University of Milan, Italy
  3. Abwa Medical College, Faisalabad, Pakistan
  4. WMO ENT Department, Lahore General Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan
  5. Department of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences Lahore, Pakistan
  6. Specialized Healthcare and Medical Education Department Lahore Punjab, Pakistan
  7. Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
  8. Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh, Saudi Arabia
  9. Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Division of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
  10. Department of Anatomy, Collage of Medicine, Jouf University, Sakaka, Jouf, Saudi Arabia
  11. Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Rabigh, Saudi Arabia
  12. Department of Pharmacy, The University of Lahore, Pakistan
Clin Exp HEPATOL 2026; 12, 1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5114/ceh.2025.158317
Online publish date: 2026/01/22
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Aim
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver malignancy and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Despite advances in therapy, the prognosis remains poor, highlighting the need for novel, low-toxicity therapeutic strategies. Campesterol, a naturally occurring dietary phytosterol, has been reported to exert anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in various cancers, yet its activity in liver cancer cells remains underexplored.

Material and methods
The anticancer potential of campesterol was evaluated in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells. Cells were treated with increasing concentrations of campesterol (10, 50, 100, and 200 µg/ml) for 24 h. Cell viability and proliferation were assessed by MTT and crystal violet assays, while cell death was quantified by trypan blue exclusion. Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test, with p < 0.05 considered significant.

Results
Campesterol exhibited a dose-dependent effect on HepG2 cells. No significant change in viability was observed at lower concentrations (10-100 µg/ml), whereas a marked reduction in cell viability and increase in cell death were detected at 200 µg/ml (p < 0.05). Findings were consistent across MTT, crystal violet, and trypan blue assays, supporting the concept of apoptosis-associated cytotoxicity.

Conclusions
These findings demonstrate that campesterol reduces viability and promotes apoptosis in HepG2 cells, suggesting its potential as a low-toxicity adjunct in HCC therapy. Further mechanistic investigations and in vivo studies are warranted to validate its translational applicability.

keywords:

hepatocellular carcinoma, HepG2, phytosterol, campesterol, apoptosis
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