Biol Sport. 2026;43:721–728
1. Kaptoge S, Pennells L, De Bacquer D, et al. World Health Organization cardiovascular disease risk charts: models to estimate risk in 21 global regions. Lancet Glob Health. 2019; 7(10):e1332–e1345.
2.
Ozemek C, Bonikowske A, Christle J, Gallo P. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 12th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2025.
3.
Poli L, Mazić S, Ciccone MM, et al. A 10-week multicomponent outdoor exercise program improves hemodynamic parameters and physical fitness in cardiovascular disease adult and elderly patients. Sport Sci Health. 2025; 21(1):239–249.
4.
Gupta S, Rohatgi A, Ayers CR, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness and classification of risk of cardiovascular disease mortality Circulation. 2011; 123(13):1377–1383.
5.
World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2002 – Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.
6.
Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS,et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018; 71(19):e127–e248.
7.
Kenney MJ, Seals DR. Postexercise hypotension: Key features, mechanisms, and clinical significance. Hypertension. 1993; 22(5):653–664.
8.
Halliwill JR. Mechanisms and clinical implications of post-exercise hypotension in humans. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2001; 29(2):65–70.
9.
Jones MD, Munir M, Wilkonski A, et al. Post-exercise hypotension time-course is influenced by exercise intensity: a randomised trial comparing moderate-intensity, high-intensity, and sprint exercise. J Hum Hypertens. 2021; 35(9):776–784.
10.
Peddie L, Gosselin Boucher V, Buckler EJ, et al. Acute effects of outdoor versus indoor exercise: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychol Rev. 2024; 18(4):853–883.
11.
MacDonald JR, MacDougall JD, Hogben CD. The effects of exercise duration on post-exercise hypotension. J Hum Hypertens. 2000; 14(2):125–129.
12.
MacDonald JR, MacDougall JD, Hogben CD. The effects of exercise intensity on post exercise hypotension. J Hum Hypertens. 1999; 13(8):527- 531.
13.
A’Naja MN, Newsome AM, Reed R, et al. 2024 ACSM Worldwide fitness trends: Future directions of the health and fitness industry. ACSM’s Health Fit J. 2024; 28(1):14–26.
14.
Coventry PA, Brown JE, Pervin J, et al. Nature-based outdoor activities for mental and physical health: Systematic review and meta-analysis. SSM – Popul Health. 2021; 16:100934.
15.
Mitten D, Overholt JR, Haynes FI, et al. Hiking: A low-cost, accessible intervention to promote health benefits. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2016; 12(4):302–310.
16.
Drexel H, Mader A, Saely CH, et al. Downhill hiking improves low-grade inflammation, triglycerides, body weight and glucose tolerance. Sci Rep. 2021; 11(1):14503.
17.
Wolf ID, Wohlfart T. Walking, hiking and running in parks: A multidisciplinary assessment of health and well-being benefits. Landsc Urban Plan. 2014; 130:89–103.
18.
Papale O, Festino E, Condello G, et al. Psychophysiological data harmonization for the sustainability of outdoor activities. Sustainability. 2023; 15(22):15838.
19.
Church TS, Earnest CP, Skinner JS, et al. Effects of different doses of physical activity on cardiorespiratory fitness among sedentary, overweight or obese postmenopausal women with elevated blood pressure: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2007; 297(19):2081–2091.
20.
Mannocci A, Di Thiene D, Del Cimmuto A, et al. International Physical Activity Questionnaire: Validation and assessment in an Italian sample. Ital J Public Health. 2010; 7(4):369–376.
21.
Speck J. Walkable City: How Downtown Can Save America, One Step at a Time. Nova York: North Point Press; 2012.
22.
Porcari JP, Foster C, Cress ML, et al. Prediction of exercise capacity and training prescription from the 6-minute walk test and rating of perceived exertion. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2021;6(2):52.
23.
Carpio-Rivera E, Moncada-Jiménez J, Salazar-Rojas W, et al. Acute effects of exercise on blood pressure: A meta-analytic investigation. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2016; 106(5):422–433.
24.
Xu Q, Silva RM, Zmijewski P, et al. Recreational soccer and basketball improve anthropometric, body composition and health-related outcomes in overweight and obese young adults: A randomized multi-arm study. Biol Sport. 2025; 42(2):21–33.
25.
Ito G, Feeley M, Sawai T, et al. High-intensity interval training improves respiratory and cardiovascular adjustments before and after initiation of exercise. Front Physiol. 2024;15:1227316.
26.
Forjaz C, Cardoso CG, Rezk CC, et al. Postexercise hypotension and hemodynamics: The role of exercise intensity. Soc Semiot. 2003;44(1):54- 62.
27.
Kelley GA, Kelley KS. Progressive resistance exercise and resting blood pressure: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension. 2000; 35(3):838–843.
28.
Rodrigues GD, Lima LS, da Silva NCS, et al. Are home-based exercises effective to reduce blood pressure in hypertensive adults? A systematic review. Clin Hypertens. 2022; 28(1):28.
29.
Allen NB, Siddique J, Wilkins JT, et al. Blood pressure trajectories in early adulthood and subclinical atherosclerosis in middle age. JAMA. 2014; 311(5):490.
30.
Kwon J, Kim E. Lifelong impact of elevated blood pressure from childhood to adulthood. Clin Exp Pediatr. 2025; 68(4):278–286.
31.
Daniela M, Catalina L, Ilie O, et al. Effects of exercise training on the autonomic nervous system with a focus on anti-inflammatory and antioxidants effects. Antioxidants. 2022; 11(2):350.
32.
White WB. Heart rate and the rate-pressure product as determinants of cardiovascular risk in patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1999; 12(S2):50S-55S.
33.
Jiang Z-H, Aierken A, Wu T-T, et al. Rate pressure product as a novel predictor of long-term adverse outcomes in patients after percutaneous coronary intervention: A retrospective cohort study. BMJ Open. 2023; 13(4):e067951.
34.
Papale O, Festino E, Di Rocco F, et al. The impact of a multidimensional physical activity intervention on glycemic control in type 1 diabetes: A preliminary study. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2025; 10(2):163.
35.
De Moraes JA, De Barcelos GT, Coneglian JC, et al. Combined training with aerobic exercise performed outdoors can promote better blood pressure and affective responses in Individuals with cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022; 19(23):16009.
Copyright: Institute of Sport. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This license enables reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license allows for commercial use.