Folia Neuropathologica
eISSN: 1509-572x
ISSN: 1641-4640
Folia Neuropathologica
Current issue Archive Manuscripts accepted About the journal Special Issues Editorial board Reviewers Abstracting and indexing Subscription Contact Instructions for authors Publication charge Ethical standards and procedures
Editorial System
Submit your Manuscript
SCImago Journal & Country Rank
Search
Editorial Policies
Sarajevo Declaration on Integrity and Visibility of Scholarly Publications
1/2025
vol. 63
 
Share:
Send email
Share:
Review paper

Treatment update for autoimmune/immune-mediated central nervous system diseases

Jiayi Wu
1, 2
,
Xuewei Li
1, 2
,
Jun Peng
1, 2
,
Wan Fu
1, 2
,
Shuangxi Chen
1, 2
,
Heng Wu
1, 2

  1. Department of Neurology, Multi-Omics Research Center for Brain Disorders, The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China, 421000 Hengyang, Hunan, China
  2. Clinical Research Center for Immune-Related Encephalopathy of Hunan Province (The First Affiliated Hospital, University of South China), 421000 Hengyang, Hunan, China
Folia Neuropathol 2025; 63 (1): 19-29
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5114/fn.2025.149473
Online publish date: 2025/04/16
Article file
- Treatment (1).pdf  [0.12 MB]
Get citation
 
PlumX metrics:
 
1. AKatz Sand I, Benn EKT, Fabian M, Fitzgerald KC, Digga E, Deshpande R, Miller A, Gallo S, Arab L. Randomized-controlled trial of a modified Mediterranean dietary program for multiple sclerosis: A pilot study. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2019; 36: 101403.
2. Allison AC. Mechanisms of action of mycophenolate mofetil. Lupus 2005; 14 Suppl 1: s2-8.
3. Aly L, Hemmer B, Korn T. From leflunomide to teriflunomide: Drug development and immunosuppressive oral drugs in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15: 874-891.
4. Arrambide G, Iacobaeus E, Amato MP, Derfuss T, Vukusic S, Hemmer B, Brundin L, Tintore M. Aggressive multiple sclerosis (2): Treatment. Mult Scler 2020; 26: 1352458520924595.
5. Babiker HM, Glode AE, Cooke LS, Mahadevan D. Ublituximab for the treatment of CD20 positive B-cell malignancies. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2018; 27: 407-412.
6. Baldassari LE, Fox RJ. Therapeutic advances and challenges in the treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis. Drugs 2018; 78: 1549-1566.
7. Becker A, Martin EC, Mitchell DY, Grenningloh R, Bender AT, Laurent J, Mackenzie H, Johne A. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, target occupancy, and concentration-QT analysis of the novel BTK inhibitor evobrutinib in healthy volunteers. Clin Transl Sci 2020; 13: 325-336.
8. Behrangi N, Fischbach F, Kipp M. Mechanism of siponimod: Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective mode of action. Cells 2019; 8: 24.
9. Bell L, Lenhart A, Rosenwald A, Monoranu CM, Berberich-Siebelt F. Lymphoid aggregates in the CNS of progressive multiple sclerosis patients lack regulatory T cells. Front Immunol 2019; 10: 3090.
10. Benamer N, Fares N, Bois P, Faivre JF. Electrophysiological and functional effects of sphingosine-1-phosphate in mouse ventricular fibroblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 408: 6-11.
11. Boyko AN, Smirnova NF, Shchukin IA, Guseva ME, Volkov AI. Ofatumumab – a new drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2021; 121: 37-43.
12. Caplan AI. Mesenchymal stem cells: Time to change the name! Stem Cells Transl Med 2017; 6: 1445-1451.
13. Carlini F, Ivaldi F, Gualandi F, Boschert U, Centonze D, Matarese G, Salvetti M, Kerlero de Rosbo N, Uccelli A. Different susceptibility of T and B cells to cladribine depends on their levels of deoxycytidine kinase activity linked to activation status. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2022; 17: 195-205.
14. Cencetti F, Bernacchioni C, Tonelli F, Roberts E, Donati C, Bruni P. TGFbeta1 evokes myoblast apoptotic response via a novel signaling pathway involving S1P4 transactivation upstream of Rho-kinase-2 activation. FASEB J 2013; 27: 4532-4546.
15. Chen D, Gallagher S, Monson NL, Herbst R, Wang Y. Inebilizumab, a B cell-depleting anti-CD19 antibody for the treatment of autoimmune neurological diseases: Insights from preclinical studies. J Clin Med 2016; 5: 107.
16. Chun J, Giovannoni G, Hunter SF. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor modulator therapy for multiple sclerosis: Differential downstream receptor signalling and clinical profile effects. Drugs 2021; 81: 207-231.
17. Cignarella F, Cantoni C, Ghezzi L, Salter A, Dorsett Y, Chen L, Phillips D, Weinstock GM, Fontana L, Cross AH, Zhou Y, Piccio L. Intermittent fasting confers protection in CNS autoimmunity by altering the gut microbiota. Cell Metab 2018; 27: 1222-1235.e1226.
18. Cohan S, Lucassen E, Smoot K, Brink J, Chen C. Sphingosine-1-phosphate: Its pharmacological regulation and the treatment of multiple sclerosis: A review article. Biomedicines 2020; 8: 227.
19. Cohen JA. Mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2013; 333: 43-49.
20. Comi G, Bar-Or A, Lassmann H, Uccelli A, Hartung HP, Montalban X, Sorensen PS, Hohlfeld R, Hauser SL. Role of B cells in multiple sclerosis and related disorders. Ann Neurol 2021; 89: 13-23.
21. Crawford JJ, Johnson AR, Misner DL, Belmont LD, Castanedo G, Choy R, Coraggio M, Dong L, Eigenbrot C, Erickson R, Ghilardi N, Hau J, Katewa A, Bir Kohli P, Lee W, Lubach JW, McKenzie BS, Ortwine DF, Schutt L, Tay S, Wei BQ, Reif K, Liu L, Wong H, Young WB. Discovery of GDC-0853: A potent, selective, and noncovalent Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibitor in early clinical development. J Med Chem 2018; 61: 2227-2245.
22. Dalmau J, Graus F. Antibody-mediated encephalitis. N Engl J Med 2018; 378: 840-851.
23. Dhillon S. Orelabrutinib: First approval. Drugs 2021; 81: 503-507.
24. Dolgin E. BTK blockers make headway in multiple sclerosis. Nat Biotechnol 2021; 39: 3-5.
25. Dopkins N, Becker W, Miranda K, Walla M, Nagarkatti P, Nagarkatti M. Tryptamine attenuates experimental multiple sclerosis through activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11: 619265.
26. Drouillard A, Mathieu AL, Marcais A, Belot A, Viel S, Mingueneau M, Guckian K, Walzer T. S1PR5 is essential for human natural killer cell migration toward sphingosine-1 phosphate. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2018; 141: 2265-2268.e2261.
27. Engelberts PJ, Voorhorst M, Schuurman J, van Meerten T, Bakker JM, Vink T, Mackus WJ, Breij EC, Derer S, Valerius T, van de Winkel JG, Parren PW, Beurskens FJ. Type I CD20 antibodies recruit the B cell receptor for complement-dependent lysis of malignant B cells. J Immunol 2016; 197: 4829-4837.
28. Estupinan HY, Berglof A, Zain R, Smith CIE. Comparative analysis of BTK inhibitors and mechanisms underlying adverse effects. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9: 630942.
29. Fassas A, Anagnostopoulos A, Kazis A, Kapinas K, Sakellari I, Kimiskidis V, Tsompanakou A. Peripheral blood stem cell transplantation in the treatment of progressive multiple sclerosis: first results of a pilot study. Bone Marrow Transplant 1997; 20: 631-638.
30. Forsthuber TG, Cimbora DM, Ratchford JN, Katz E, Stuve O. B cell-based therapies in CNS autoimmunity: differentiating CD19 and CD20 as therapeutic targets. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2018; 11: 1756286418761697.
31. Garnock-Jones KP. Teriflunomide: a review of its use in relapsing multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs 2013; 27: 1103-1123.
32. Gärtner J, Hauser SL, Bar-Or A, Montalban X, Cohen JA, Cross AH, Deiva K, Ganjgahi H, Häring DA, Li B, Pingili R, Ramanathan K,
33. Su W, Willi R, Kieseier B, Kappos L. Efficacy and safety of ofatumumab in recently diagnosed, treatment-naive patients with multiple sclerosis: Results from ASCLEPIOS I and II. Mult Scler 2022; 28: 1562-1575.
34. Genc B, Bozan HR, Genc S, Genc K. Stem cell therapy for multiple sclerosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 2019; 1084: 145-174.
35. Gergely P, Nuesslein-Hildesheim B, Guerini D, Brinkmann V, Traebert M, Bruns C, Pan S, Gray NS, Hinterding K, Cooke NG, Groenewegen A, Vitaliti A, Sing T, Luttringer O, Yang J, Gardin A, Wang N, Crumb WJ Jr, Saltzman M, Rosenberg M, Wallström E. The selective sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor modulator BAF312 redirects lymphocyte distribution and has species-specific effects on heart rate. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 167: 1035-1047.
36. Gharibi T, Ahmadi M, Seyfizadeh N, Jadidi-Niaragh F, Yousefi M. Immunomodulatory characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells and their role in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Cell Immunol 2015; 293: 113-121.
37. Giacoppo S, Bramanti P, Mazzon E. The transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells derived from unconventional sources: an innovative approach to multiple sclerosis therapy. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2017; 65: 363-379.
38. Gonzalez-Cabrera PJ, Cahalan SM, Nguyen N, Sarkisyan G, Leaf NB, Cameron MD, Kago T, Rosen H. S1P(1) receptor modulation with cyclical recovery from lymphopenia ameliorates mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Mol Pharmacol 2012; 81: 166-174.
39. Hansen L, Lohfink N, Vutukuri R, Kestner RI, Trautmann S, Hecht M, Wagner PV, Spitzer D, Khel MI, Macas J, Ferreirós N, Gurke R, Günther S, Pfeilschifter W, Devraj K. Endothelial sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 4 regulates blood-brain barrier permeability and promotes a homeostatic endothelial phenotype. J Neurosci 2022; 42: 1908-1929.
40. Montalban X, Hauser SL, Kappos L, Arnold DL, Bar-Or A, Comi G, de Seze J, Giovannoni G, Hartung HP, Hemmer B, Lublin F, Rammohan KW, Selmaj K, Traboulsee A, Sauter A, Masterman D, Fontoura P, Belachew S, Garren H, Mairon N, Chin P, Wolinsky JS; ORATORIO Clinical Investigators. Ocrelizumab versus interferon beta-1a in relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 221-234.
41. Hawker K, O’Connor P, Freedman MS, Calabresi PA, Antel J, Simon J, Hauser S, Waubant E, Vollmer T, Panitch H, Zhang J, Chin P, Smith CH. Rituximab in patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis: results of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Ann Neurol 2009; 66: 460-471.
42. Heo YA. Satralizumab: First approval. Drugs 2020; 80: 1477-1482.
43. Hermann R, Krajcsi P, Fluck M, Seithel-Keuth A, Bytyqi A, Galazka A, Munafo A. Review of transporter substrate, inhibitor, and inducer characteristics of cladribine. Clin Pharmacokinet 2021; 60: 1509-1535.
44. Huda S, Whittam D, Bhojak M, Chamberlain J, Noonan C, Jacob A. Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Clin Med (Lond) 2019; 19: 169-176.
45. Husari KS, Cervenka MC. Ketogenic diet therapy for the treatment of post-encephalitic and autoimmune-associated epilepsies. Front Neurol 2021; 12: 624202.
46. Jaillard C, Harrison S, Stankoff B, Aigrot MS, Calver AR, Duddy G, Walsh FS, Pangalos MN, Arimura N, Kaibuchi K, Zalc B, Lubetzki C. Edg8/S1P5: an oligodendroglial receptor with dual function on process retraction and cell survival. J Neurosci 2005; 25: 1459-1469.
47. Kawachi I, Lassmann H. Neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2017; 88: 137-145.
48. Kempf A, Tews B, Arzt ME, Weinmann O, Obermair FJ, Pernet V, Zagrebelsky M, Delekate A, Iobbi C, Zemmar A, Ristic Z, Gullo M, Spies P, Dodd D, Gygax D, Korte M, Schwab ME. The sphingolipid receptor S1PR2 is a receptor for Nogo-a repressing synaptic plasticity. PLoS Biol 2014; 12: e1001763.
49. Kinzel S, Weber MS. B cell-directed therapeutics in multiple sclerosis: Rationale and clinical evidence. CNS Drugs 2016; 30: 1137-1148.
50. Kitley J, Woodhall M, Waters P, Leite MI, Devenney E, Craig J, Palace J, Vincent A. Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies in adults with a neuromyelitis optica phenotype. Neurology 2012; 79: 1273-1277.
51. Komiya T, Sato K, Shioya H, Inagaki Y, Hagiya H, Kozaki R, Imai M, Takada Y, Maeda T, Kurata H, Kurono M, Suzuki R, Otsuki K, Habashita H, Nakade S. Efficacy and immunomodulatory actions of ONO-4641, a novel selective agonist for sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors 1 and 5, in preclinical models of multiple sclerosis. Clin Exp Immunol 2013; 171: 54-62.
52. Kong BS, Kim Y, Kim GY, Hyun JW, Kim SH, Jeong A, Kim HJ. Increased frequency of IL-6-producing non-classical monocytes in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14: 191.
53. Lamb YN. Ozanimod: First approval. Drugs 2020; 80: 841-848.
54. Lennon VA, Wingerchuk DM, Kryzer TJ, Pittock SJ, Lucchinetti CF, Fujihara K, Nakashima I, Weinshenker BG. A serum autoantibody marker of neuromyelitis optica: distinction from multiple sclerosis. Lancet 2004; 364: 2106-2112.
55. Li R, Patterson KR, Bar-Or A. Reassessing B cell contributions in multiple sclerosis. Nat Immunol 2018; 19: 696-707.
56. Mancardi GL, Sormani MP, Gualandi F, Saiz A, Carreras E, Merelli E, Donelli A, Lugaresi A, Di Bartolomeo P, Rottoli MR, Rambaldi A, Amato MP, Massacesi L, Di Gioia M, Vuolo L, Currò D, Roccatagliata L, Filippi M, Aguglia U, Iacopino P, Farge D, Saccardi R; ASTIMS Haemato-Neurological Collaborative Group, On behalf of the Autoimmune Disease Working Party (ADWP) of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT); ASTIMS Haemato-Neurological Collaborative Group On behalf of the Autoimmune Disease Working Party ADWP of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation EBMT. Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in multiple sclerosis: a phase II trial. Neurology 2015; 84: 981-988.
57. Mandala S, Hajdu R, Bergstrom J, Quackenbush E, Xie J, Milligan J, Thornton R, Shei GJ, Card D, Keohane C, Rosenbach M, Hale J, Lynch CL, Rupprecht K, Parsons W, Rosen H. Alteration of lymphocyte trafficking by sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonists. Science 2002; 296: 346-349.
58. Markham A. Ponesimod: First approval. Drugs 2021; 81: 957-962.
59. Matloubian M, Lo CG, Cinamon G, Lesneski MJ, Xu Y, Brinkmann V, Allende ML, Proia RL, Cyster JG. Lymphocyte egress from thymus and peripheral lymphoid organs is dependent on S1P receptor 1. Nature 2004; 427: 355-360.
60. Montalban X, Arnold DL, Weber MS, Staikov I, Piasecka-Stryczynska K, Willmer J, Martin EC, Dangond F, Syed S, Wolinsky JS. Placebo-controlled trial of an oral BTK inhibitor in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2019; 380: 2406-2417.
61. Montalban X, Hauser SL, Kappos L. Ocrelizumab versus placebo in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 209-220.
62. Montes Diaz G, Hupperts R, Fraussen J, Somers V. Dimethyl fumarate treatment in multiple sclerosis: Recent advances in clinical and immunological studies. Autoimmun Rev 2018; 17: 1240-1250.
63. Mullershausen F, Zecri F, Cetin C, Billich A, Guerini D, Seuwen K. Persistent signaling induced by FTY720-phosphate is mediated by internalized S1P1 receptors. Nat Chem Biol 2009; 5: 428-434.
64. Muraro PA, Douek DC. Renewing the T cell repertoire to arrest autoimmune aggression. Trends Immunol 2006; 27: 61-67.
65. Muraro PA, Martin R, Mancardi GL, Nicholas R, Sormani MP, Saccardi R. Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for treatment of multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol 2017; 13: 391-405.
66. Naismith RT, Wundes A, Ziemssen T, Jasinska E, Freedman MS, Lembo AJ, Selmaj K, Bidollari I, Chen H, Hanna J, Leigh-Pemberton R, Lopez-Bresnahan M, Lyons J, Miller C, Rezendes D, Wolinsky JS; EVOLVE-MS-2 Study Group. Diroximel fumarate demonstrates an improved gastrointestinal tolerability profile compared with dimethyl fumarate in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: Results from the randomized, double-blind, phase III EVOLVE-MS-2 study. CNS Drugs 2020; 34: 185-196.
67. Ng AP, Alexander WS. Haematopoietic stem cells: past, present and future. Cell Death Discov 2017; 3: 17002.
68. Nosadini M, Mohammad SS, Ramanathan S, Brilot F, Dale RC. Immune therapy in autoimmune encephalitis: a systematic review. Expert Rev Neurother 2015; 15: 1391-1419.
69. Nystad AE, Lereim RR, Wergeland S, Oveland E, Myhr KM, Bo L, Torkildsen O. Fingolimod downregulates brain sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 levels but does not promote remyelination or neuroprotection in the cuprizone model. J Neuroimmunol 2020; 339: 577091.
70. O’Connor P, Wolinsky JS, Confavreux C, Comi G, Kappos L, Olsson TP, Benzerdjeb H, Truffinet P, Wang L, Miller A, Freedman MS. Randomized trial of oral teriflunomide for relapsing multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 1293-1303.
71. O’Sullivan C, Schubart A, Mir AK, Dev KK. The dual S1PR1/S1PR5 drug BAF312 (Siponimod) attenuates demyelination in organotypic slice cultures. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13: 31.
72. Oh J, Bar-Or A. Ublituximab: a new anti-CD20 agent for multiple sclerosis. Lancet Neurol 2022; 21: 1070-1072.
73. Olesch C, Sirait-Fischer E, Berkefeld M, Fink AF, Susen RM, Ritter B, Michels BE, Steinhilber D, Greten FR, Savai R, Takeda K, Brune B, Weigert A. S1PR4 ablation reduces tumor growth and improves chemotherapy via CD8+ T cell expansion. J Clin Invest 2020; 130: 5461-5476.
74. Palace J, Lin DY, Zeng D, Majed M, Elsone L, Hamid S, Messina S, Misu T, Sagen J, Whittam D, Takai Y, Leite MI, Weinshenker B, Cabre P, Jacob A, Nakashima I, Fujihara K, Pittock SJ. Outcome prediction models in AQP4-IgG positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Brain 2019; 142: 1310-1323.
75. Payandeh Z, Bahrami AA, Hoseinpoor R, Mortazavi Y, Rajabibazl M, Rahimpour A, Taromchi AH, Khalil S. The applications of anti-CD20 antibodies to treat various B cells disorders. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 109: 2415-2426.
76. Perez-Jeldres T, Alvarez-Lobos M, Rivera-Nieves J. Targeting sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling in immune-mediated diseases: Beyond multiple sclerosis. Drugs 2021; 81: 985-1002.
77. Petrou P, Kassis I, Levin N, Paul F, Backner Y, Benoliel T, Oertel FC, Scheel M, Hallimi M, Yaghmour N, Hur TB, Ginzberg A, Levy Y, Abramsky O, Karussis D. Beneficial effects of autologous mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in active progressive multiple sclerosis. Brain 2020; 143: 3574-3588.
78. Piali L, Froidevaux S, Hess P, Nayler O, Bolli MH, Schlosser E, Kohl C, Steiner B, Clozel M. The selective sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 agonist ponesimod protects against lymphocyte-mediated tissue inflammation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 337: 547-556.
79. Pluchino S, Smith JA, Peruzzotti-Jametti L. Promises and limitations of neural stem cell therapies for progressive multiple sclerosis. Trends Mol Med 2020; 26: 898-912.
80. Ratzinger G, Reagan JL, Heller G, Busam KJ, Young JW. Differential CD52 expression by distinct myeloid dendritic cell subsets: implications for alemtuzumab activity at the level of antigen presentation in allogeneic graft-host interactions in transplantation. Blood 2003; 101: 1422-1429.
81. Rolla S, Maglione A, De Mercanti SF, Clerico M. The meaning of immune reconstitution after alemtuzumab therapy in multiple sclerosis. Cells 2020; 9: 1396.
82. Rosen H, Gonzalez-Cabrera PJ, Sanna MG, Brown S. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor signaling. Annu Rev Biochem 2009; 78: 743-768.
83. Roy R, Alotaibi AA, Freedman MS. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor modulators for multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs 2021; 35: 385-402.
84. Ruggieri S, Quartuccio ME, Prosperini L. Ponesimod in the treatment of relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis: An update on the emerging clinical data. Degener Neurol Neuromuscul Dis 2022; 12: 61-73.
85. Sacco KA, Abraham RS. Consequences of B-cell-depleting therapy: hypogammaglobulinemia and impaired B-cell reconstitution. Immunotherapy 2018; 10: 713-728.
86. Sanna MG, Liao J, Jo E, Alfonso C, Ahn MY, Peterson MS, Webb B, Lefebvre S, Chun J, Gray N, Rosen H. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor subtypes S1P1 and S1P3, respectively, regulate lymphocyte recirculation and heart rate. J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 13839-13848.
87. Schneider R, Oh J. Bruton’s tyrosine kinase inhibition in multiple sclerosis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2022; 22: 721-734.
88. Scott FL, Clemons B, Brooks J, Brahmachary E, Powell R, Dedman H, Desale HG, Timony GA, Martinborough E, Rosen H, Roberts E, Boehm MF, Peach RJ. Ozanimod (RPC1063) is a potent sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor-1 (S1P1) and receptor-5 (S1P5 ) agonist with autoimmune disease-modifying activity. Br J Pharmacol 2016; 173: 1778-1792.
89. Sellebjerg F, Blinkenberg M, Sorensen PS. Anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies for relapsing and progressive multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs 2020; 34: 269-280.
90. Selter RC, Hemmer B. Update on immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy in multiple sclerosis. Immunotargets Ther 2013; 2: 21-30.
91. Seyedsadr MS, Weinmann O, Amorim A, Ineichen BV, Egger M, Mirnajafi-Zadeh J, Becher B, Javan M, Schwab ME. Inactivation of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) decreases demyelination and enhances remyelination in animal models of multiple sclerosis. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 124: 189-201.
92. Shen P, Fillatreau S. Antibody-independent functions of B cells: a focus on cytokines. Nat Rev Immunol 2015; 15: 441-451.
93. Syed YY. Alemtuzumab: A review in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. Drugs 2021; 81: 157-168.
94. Syed YY. Ocrelizumab: A review in multiple sclerosis. CNS Drugs 2018; 32: 883-890.
95. Takuwa N, Ohkura S, Takashima S, Ohtani K, Okamoto Y, Tanaka T, Hirano K, Usui S, Wang F, Du W, Yoshioka K, Banno Y, Sasaki M, Ichi I, Okamura M, Sugimoto N, Mizugishi K, Nakanuma Y, Ishii I, Takamura M, Kaneko S, Kojo S, Satouchi K, Mitumori K, Chun J, Takuwa Y. S1P3-mediated cardiac fibrosis in sphingosine kinase 1 transgenic mice involves reactive oxygen species. Cardiovasc Res 2010; 85: 484-493.
96. Tanaka T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. Interleukin (IL-6) immunotherapy. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018; 10: a028456.
97. Theil D, Smith P, Huck C, Gilbart Y, Kakarieka A, Leppert D, Rauld C, Schmid C, Baumgartner R, Stuber N, Cordoba F, Dubost V, Darribat K, Jivkov M, Frieauff W, Kneuer R, Stoeckli M, Reinker S, Mansfield K, Carballido JM, Couttet P, Weckbecker G. Imaging mass cytometry and single-cell genomics reveal differential depletion and repletion of B-cell populations following ofatumumab treatment in cynomolgus monkeys. Front Immunol 2019; 10: 1340.
98. Titulaer MJ, McCracken L, Gabilondo I, Armangué T, Glaser C, Iizuka T, Honig LS, Benseler SM, Kawachi I, Martinez-Hernandez E, Aguilar E, Gresa-Arribas N, Ryan-Florance N, Torrents A, Saiz A, Rosenfeld MR, Balice-Gordon R, Graus F, Dalmau J. Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2013; 12: 157-165.
99. Tsai MH, Lin CH, Tsai KW, Lin MH, Ho CJ, Lu YT, Weng KP, Lin Y, Lin PH, Li SC. S100A6 promotes B lymphocyte penetration through the blood-brain barrier in autoimmune encephalitis. Front Genet 2019; 10: 1188.
100. Valburg C, Sonti A, Stern JN, Najjar S, Harel A. Dietary factors in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis: A comprehensive review. Mult Scler 2021; 27: 494-502.
101. Van Doorn R, Van Horssen J, Verzijl D, Witte M, Ronken E, Van Het Hof B, Lakeman K, Dijkstra CD, Van Der Valk P, Reijerkerk A, Alewijnse AE, Peters SL, De Vries HE. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 and 3 are upregulated in multiple sclerosis lesions. Glia 2010; 58: 1465-1476.
102. Vermersch P, Brieva-Ruiz L, Fox RJ, Paul F, Ramio-Torrenta L, Schwab M, Moussy A, Mansfield C, Hermine O, Maciejowski M. Efficacy and safety of masitinib in progressive forms of multiple sclerosis: A randomized, phase 3, clinical trial. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2022; 9: e1148.
103. Volpe G, Bernstock JD, Peruzzotti-Jametti L, Pluchino S. Modulation of host immune responses following non-hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: Translational implications in progressive multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 331: 11-27.
104. Xiao J, Yang R, Biswas S, Zhu Y, Qin X, Zhang M, Zhai L, Luo Y, He X, Mao C, Deng W. Neural stem cell-based regenerative approaches for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55: 3152-3171.
105. Yang Y, Wang CJ, Wang BJ, Zeng ZL, Guo SG. Comparison of efficacy and tolerability of azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil, and lower dosages of rituximab among patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. J Neurol Sci 2018; 385: 192-197.
106. Zhang M, Zhang C, Bai P, Xue H, Wang G. Effectiveness of low dose of rituximab compared with azathioprine in Chinese patients with neuromyelitis optica: an over 2-year follow-up study. Acta Neurol Belg 2017; 117: 695-702.
Copyright: © 2025 Mossakowski Medical Research Centre Polish Academy of Sciences and the Polish Association of Neuropathologists. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
  
Termedia
About us Contact
Copyright notice Privacy policy Advertising policy Contact us
Quick links
Journals Books eBooks Events
© 2025 Termedia Sp. z o.o.
Developed by Bentus.