en ENGLISH
eISSN: 2083-8441
ISSN: 2081-237X
Pediatric Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism
Bieżący numer Archiwum Artykuły zaakceptowane O czasopiśmie Suplementy Rada naukowa Recenzenci Bazy indeksacyjne Prenumerata Kontakt Zasady publikacji prac Opłaty publikacyjne Standardy etyczne i procedury
Panel Redakcyjny
Zgłaszanie i recenzowanie prac online
SCImago Journal & Country Rank
Poleć ten artykuł:
Udostępnij:
Artykuł przeglądowy

Zachowanie dzieci a otyłość dziecięca

Aus Ali
1
,
Osamah Al-ani
2
,
Faisal Al-ani
2

  1. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
  2. Faculty of Medicine, Odessa National Medical School, Odessa, Ukraine
Pediatr Endocrinol Diabetes Metab 2024; 30
Data publikacji online: 2024/09/04
Plik artykułu:
Pobierz cytowanie
 
Metryki PlumX:
 

Introduction

Childhood obesity is defined medically as body mass index (BMI) at or above the 95th percentile for age and sex, while childhood overweight is BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile for age and sex [1]. It is associated with an increase in body weight, more specifically fat tissue mass [2]. It occurs when energy intake is more than energy expenditure and is associated with increased fat cells size and number [2]. The sharp increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children reflects a critical shift toward positive energy balance. Consequently, this upsurge is posing a major health threat worldwide. Risk factors for childhood obesity include modifiable and non-modifiable factors [2]. Non-modifiable factors such as genetics, hormonal disturbances, certain diseases, and medications [2]. Modifiable factors such as environmental and socioeconomic factors. There are many risk factors contributing to obesity in children, and the most important modifiable factors are poor diet, adverse dietary habits, and lack of physical activity [3, 4]. Children who are overweight at age 5 are 4 times more likely than their normal-weight peers to become obese later in childhood [5]. Obesity predisposes children to obesity-related health consequences such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and polycystic ovary syndrome [2]. It also leads to depression, low self-esteem, social discomfort, and ultimately social isolation [6], and as a result, the quality of life among obese children decreases significantly (Fig. 1). Obesity during adulthood can be partially explained by a decrease in metabolic rate. Thus, when people maintain a sedentary way of living, their energy output will decrease over time, and this causes weight gain [7]. A dramatic change in a child’s behaviour and environment towards sedentary lifestyle in modern societies may explain the sharp increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity worldwide [3]. Feeding behaviours are manipulated by mothers at an early stage of the child’s life [8, 9].
Risk factors for childhood obesity can help identify individuals at risk [2]. However, these factors are insufficient to explain the sharp increase in childhood obesity in Europe and developed countries, which occurred 3 to 5 decades ago [10]. This is because the westernised lifestyle and daily increase in high-caloric, high-fat diets started around the 1950s. Furthermore, the sharp increase in overweight and obesity also cannot be blamed on the availability of fast food either because it has already been presented during the 1950s and 1960s. Thus, even when all known causes of obesity have been taken into consideration, they do not provide a satisfactory explanation for such an increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children worldwide. Although previous studies attempted to link children’s diets with the growing prevalence of obesity, none have been able to show a fundamental link between diet and child obesity [11, 12]. Underreporting of daily caloric intake and overreporting physical activity, which is something that normally occurs in childhood obesity studies, may deviate the results [13]. Another important factor that may explain the sharp increase in childhood obesity is a significant alteration in children’s behaviour [13].
One of the major challenges in the life of today’s children is linked to their parents [14]. Parents no longer spend as much time (as they used to do) with their children. The availability of one or both parents around the child has a positive impact on a child’s behaviour because it makes it easy for them to advise the child on what is good or bad [15, 16]. For example, when both parents work full time, there is rarely enough time to give the child the right direction. Parents try to compensate for the lack of attention by offering more food, more games, or more money, which will ultimately worsen the issue instead of solving it. Understanding how children’s behaviours affect childhood obesity can provide an opportunity to focus resources, interventions, and research in the direction that would be most beneficial in addressing the problem. This review discusses factors that influence child behaviour and the relationship between child behaviour and childhood obesity.

Size of the problem

Childhood obesity has witnessed a sharp increase in developed and many developing countries [2]. Globally, the mean standardised BMI has been increased by 0.32 kg/m2 per decade [1]. Multiple factors contribute to this increase, including genetic, environmental, and socioeconomic factors [2–4]. Nevertheless, well-known risk factors are not the only culprits for the growing prevalence of childhood obesity, but rather what controls child behaviour to be under the exposure to such risk factors. Thus, addressing childhood obesity requires a comprehensive approach that addresses not only biological and environmental factors but also behavioural factors influencing children’s eating habits, physical activity levels, sleep patterns, and emotional well-being. As a result, effective strategies for preventing and managing childhood obesity require a comprehensive, multi-sectoral approach that addresses individual, family, community, and educational institutes.
Children’s behaviour plays a significant role in the epidemic of obesity [14–16]. Compared to children with normal weight, obese children are at risk for developing certain health conditions such as poor lipid profile, NAFLD, asthma, sleep apnoea, bone, and joint problems (Fig. 1). Other chronic health consequences that an individual may face during young adulthood include type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases, which can develop with a longer period of exposure to obesity. More importantly, obesity seems to ‘track’ from adolescence to adulthood [17]; thus, early intervention to manage and prevent overweight and obesity at younger ages is a high priority from a public health point of view. Obesity in general, and abdominal obesity specifically, is strongly associated with insulin resistance. Insulin resistance is a key factor in the development of type 2 diabetes and is also associated with other metabolic abnormalities, including dyslipidaemia, hypertension, and polycystic ovary syndrome [18].

What controls child behaviour?

A child’s behaviour is a way of communicating their genuine needs, desires, and feelings. Generally, there are many factors contributing to that behaviour, including age, personality, and the environment [19, 20]. During childhood, behaviour can be considered normal or problematic depending on whether it matches the outline expectations of the family, society, and religion and/or certain beliefs. Nevertheless, providing healthy lifestyle environments for children and adolescents is crucial [20–22]. The significant increase in the prevalence of childhood obesity in the last 3 decades could be due to alterations in child behaviour [23]. Child behaviour can be influenced mainly by 3 essential factors, and these are homes where parents play a major role, school, and neighbourhood (Fig. 2).

The role of parents

A child’s behaviour, development, and growth are embedded within a multifaceted system of relationships. Among the most important relationships that influence children’s behaviour is the one that exists between the parents and child [24]. Parents are children’s first guide to help them build healthy behaviours. A child’s behaviour at home can be promoted by one or both parents. The impact of parents on a child’s behaviour is highly important because it may promote or prevent childhood obesity [22, 23, 25]. Thus, acknowledgement of the crucial importance of early parent-child relationship quality for children’s socioemotional, intellectual, neurobiological, and better health outcomes has contributed to a shift in efforts to identify relational determinants of child outcomes [24].
Before the birth of an infant, there are important roles that mothers can take part in to prevent the unborn child becoming obese later on [26]. Obese parents tend to have obese children [26, 27]. A child has a 3.68-fold increase in the risk of obesity if his/her mother has BMI >30 kg/m2 [27]. Previous [28, 29] and most recent available studies [30] have shown that the mother’s weight gain during pregnancy is associated with increased birth weight. Furthermore, overweight and obese mothers who have gained weight before and throughout pregnancy are at high risk of metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and gestational diabetes [29, 31, 32]. Compared with normal-weight women, pre-pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain are associated with greater maternal and infant complications [29, 31, 32]. Weight gain and overeating during pregnancy places mothers and their children at an increased risk for obesity [27, 29–33]. Mothers also play important roles after a child’s birth. Indeed, what children eat is directly dependent on the knowledge, perceptions, and practices of their parents and other caregivers [34]. The method that mothers choose to feed the child is important. Previous studies show that breastfeeding is associated with a protective trend against child obesity [35–38]. In contrast, using infant formula is associated with increased risk of overweight and obesity [39–42]. Mothers in westernised countries are less likely to breastfeed their children than they were 5 decades ago [43].
Parents are responsible for helping their children develop healthy habits, such as healthy sleep, the consumption of healthy food, and eating breakfast and other main daily meals on time. Poor sleep is associated with higher BMI among children compared with children with normal sleep duration (8 to 9 hours per day) [44–46]. Others reported that sleep timing behaviour is also associated with higher BMI [47–49]. A previous study [48] found that late bedtimes and late wake-up times are associated with poorer diet quality (dense caloric and poor nutrition value diet). Furthermore, bedtime was found to be associated with breakfast partaking. Thus, bedtime was significantly earlier in children consuming breakfast every day (08:30 vs. 09:00 PM, p < 0.01); and was later (09:15 vs. 09:30 PM) in children who went to bed late and snacked rather than eat breakfast [49].
Other important factors that have a crucial impact on child behaviour and weight gain include parental relationship, their education level, their maternal status, and whether they are employed [50–52], as shown in Table I. A previous study [50] showed that, compared with children and adolescents whose mothers stay at home, those with employed mothers have a 2.6-fold increase in the risk of being obese (OR = 2.60 [95% Cl: 1.18–5.70]). Parental education level may also affect child weight in 2 different directions. In developed and industrial countries, the parental educational level is mostly associated with decreased risk of overweight and obesity [53]. In contrast, in developing and less developed countries, parental educational level is considered as a risk factor for overweight and obesity in children [51]. This could be because higher education is associated with increased purchasing power, which correlates with more food on the table. In low- and middle-income countries, childhood obesity is predominantly a problem of the rich [52].
Childhood obesity can also be triggered by parental obesity [2]. Previous studies found that the odds of being an obese child is 2 to 3 times greater when both parents are obese [50, 54]. Besides the high probability of obesity-related genetics, obese parents encourage sedentary lifestyles, and such an environment promotes weight gain among family members and increases the risk of childhood obesity. A child has a 50% risk of being obese if one of his/her parents is obese, and the risk jumps to 80% when both parents are obese. A previous study [55] reported that the probability of a pre-school child being overweight is increased more than 2-fold when parents are overweight (OR = 2.43 [95% CI: 0.78–6.59]). Genetics can explain some of the observed intergenerational association, because parents and their offspring share at least 50% of their genetic perception [55].
This influence is weak when the relationship between parents is strained, e.g. in the case of divorce or when parents are forced to work late or during weekends. Observations from a previous study [56] indicate that, compared with children of married parents, those with divorced parents are 54% more likely to be overweight and/or obese [56]. Overweight and obesity are 54% more prevalent among school children of divorced parents compared with children of married parents (RR = 1.54 [95% CI: 1.21–1.95]), while abdominal obesity increased by 89% (RR = 1.89 [95% CI 1.35–2.65]) in the same group of children [56]. In other words, the failure of the parents’ relationship may have a negative impact on child psychology and promote food intake. Even though parents usually make time to take their children to the nearest shopping mall, or to a dentist clinic, they rarely teach their children healthy eating habits or how to maintain a healthy weight [57].

Towards a better child environment

At home, the environment surrounding the child is under the responsibility and the control of parents [51]. A simple, healthy environment can be created by exposing children to preventive factors and reducing their exposure to risk factors. For example, excessive weight gain during pregnancy is a well-known risk factor for obesity during childhood [2]. Excessive gestational weight gain is a risk factor for higher weight gain at birth [27–33, 63, 64]. This means that controlling weight gain during pregnancy within the recommended range for pregnant women can help in preventing and managing obesity during early childhood. Excessive weight gain during pregnancy can also cause serious health consequences to the mother throughout the pregnancy [26, 65, 66] and afterwards [67–69]. It has been estimated that a quarter of pregnancy complications are due to overweight and obesity. Thus, to avoid these complications, it is vital to have strict follow-up and adherence to the institute of medicine instructions regarding weight gain during pregnancy [66, 69]. Indeed, weight gain within recommended ranges improves both neonatal and maternal health outcomes.
Parents can promote healthy lifestyle behaviours such as physical activity, a healthy diet, and a healthy way of eating (Table II). This is of great importance because healthy behaviours that children develop early in their life may persist into adulthood [50]. If children do not learn healthy eating habits early on, they will soon become overweight, with a greater chance of becoming obese children [51, 55]. Parents must encourage their children to develop good, healthy habits such as regular physical exercise.
Limiting TV viewing and internet usage, avoiding processed snacks, limiting sugary beverages, sweets, and junk food. Viewing TV for a long period is strongly associated with weight gain and child overweight/obesity independently of diet and exercise [55], while having a TV in the child’s bedroom makes it even worse [77]. A previous study [55] reported a 56% increase in child overweight when watching television > 2 hours/day (OR = 1.56 [95% CI: 1.17–2.09]). Watching television for long periods at a time not only restricts energy expenditure, but it also encourages snacking, and children may not stop eating even when they are full because of the distraction. Therefore, TV viewing should be limited as much as possible without allowing children to eat or drink while watching television or playing games [57].

The role of educational institutes

Schools and educational institutes play a significant impact on the development and shaping of child behaviour [78]. They serve as environments where children spend a considerable amount of time and interact with peers, teachers, and other adults. The impact of school on child behaviour can be profound and multifaceted, influencing various aspects of their social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural development [79]. The environment that schools of today provide depends on whether the school is private, governmental, or mixed. While some schools provide food, processed snacks, and sugary beverages, others provide more sports activities on a daily basis. Parents are usually in charge of selecting the right school for their children. Through parental support, educational institutes may promote healthy dietary habits and physical activity, and prevent obesity in children [80, 81]. Furthermore, the opinion of children towards school these days is very different from their parents’ opinion in their school days.
School for a child is a good environment not just only to learn or to study, but also to exchange PlayStation CDs, movies, and games with other children. Negatively, even sharing or buying drugs, e.g. alcohol, cigarette smoking, marijuana, hashish (cannabis), crack, and other drugs (i.e. cocaine) are reported daily in high schools in developed and developing countries [82]. Previous [83] and recent available studies [84] have reported that high school students who use illicit drugs show deficits in family relationships. This shows how the behaviour of a child can be affected by other children’s behaviours. Furthermore, this also shows the size of the problem when the home effect is absent [84]. To decrease the prevalence of childhood obesity, parents and schools must come together with a preventive approach towards a better and, of course, a healthier environment for the benefit of their children [85].

The role of the neighbourhood environment

There has been an increase in attention regarding the role of neighbourhoods and residential environments in explaining differences in health outcomes [86]. Indeed, the neighbourhood environment can have a significant impact on child behaviour and development due to its influence on various aspects of a child’s life, including overweight and obesity [60]. The neighbourhood where a child grows up plays a crucial role in shaping child behaviours and overall development [86]. It moulds their experiences, opportunities, and interactions with the physical, social, and economic environment. Neighbourhoods with higher levels of safety and lower crime rates create a more conducive environment for children to engage in outdoor play, physical activity, and social interactions, and the opposite is also true [60]. Children in safer neighbourhoods are more likely to exhibit positive behaviours such as outdoor play, walking or biking to school, and socialising with peers. Those living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods (unsafe neighbourhoods) may experience heightened stress, fear, and avoidance behaviour. Children in neighbourhoods with limited access to recreational facilities may have fewer opportunities for physical activity and outdoor play, leading to sedentary behaviour patterns and increased risk of obesity and related health consequences [87]. Neighbourhoods with access to parks, playgrounds, recreational facilities, and green spaces provide opportunities for physical activity, sports, and outdoor play, which promote healthy behaviours and social interactions among children [55, 88].
Overall, the neighbourhood environment plays a critical role in shaping child behaviours by providing opportunities for physical activity, social interactions, access to educational resources, healthy food options, and supportive community networks. Creating supportive neighbourhood environments that promote safety, access to recreational facilities, educational opportunities, social cohesion, and healthy lifestyles is essential for promoting positive child behaviours and overall well-being.

What is needed?

Creating a healthy environment around children is essential towards decreasing the prevalence of overweight and obesity (Fig. 3). In addition, promoting healthy behaviours, fostering supportive home and school environments, and addressing social determinants of health are essential for preventing and managing childhood obesity effectively [81]. The family environment, including parental caregiving practices, parental involvement, family dynamics, and household routines, significantly influences child behaviour [89, 90]. Warm, supportive care and greater communication between parents and their children, and a nurturing family environment promote positive child outcomes, including healthy attachment, social skills, emotional regulation, and academic achievement [90]. Educational institutes and/or schooling have a significant impact on child psychology, influencing various aspects of cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioural development. The characteristics of the community and neighbourhood environment, including access to resources, safety, social support networks, and neighbourhood cohesion, influence child behaviour. Positive community environments with access to parks, recreational facilities, and community programs promote physical activity, social engagement, and healthy development. Some children may have underlying behavioural disorders that affect their actions. Identifying and addressing these disorders is crucial for managing child behaviour. It is suggested that for better outcomes, local governments and educational institutes’ practitioners must focus on improving collaboration between school and home to optimise children’s subjective well-being by reducing their homework anxiety and increasing the harmonious family atmosphere. Thus, more family communication and support, more social interaction, and less parental-child interaction and family conflict [91].
Finally, to decrease childhood obesity, further approaches must be implanted. Parents must be considered as cornerstones in the application of any of these approaches. Figure 3 displays selected factors towards the creation of a healthy environment around children. Such interventions may promote healthy food choices, improve the psychosocial well-being of children, and support families to create a healthy environment for children.

Conclusions

The prevalence of childhood obesity continues to increase globally, posing significant challenges for public health systems and underscoring the importance of comprehensive strategies to address this epidemic. Child behaviour plays a crucial role in the crisis of childhood obesity because it directly influences lifestyle habits, dietary choices, physical activity levels, and overall health outcomes. The combined influence of parents, schools, and the local community creates an environment that shapes a child’s behaviour, social skills, and overall development. Collaboration and coordination among these elements are essential for promoting positive behaviour and well-being in children. Finally, promoting healthy behaviours and creating supportive environments that encourage healthy eating and active living are essential strategies for addressing childhood obesity and promoting the health and well-being of children.
References
1. NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128·9 million children, adolescents, and adults. Lancet 2017; 390: 2627–2642. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32129-3.
2. Ali AT, Al-Ani F, Al-Ani O. Childhood obesity: causes, consequences, and prevention. Dětská obezita: příčiny, důsledky a prevence. Ceska Slov Farm 2023; 72: 21–36.
3. Paduano S, Greco A, Borsari L, et al. Physical and Sedentary Activities and Childhood Overweight/Obesity: A Cross-Sectional Study among First-Year Children of Primary Schools in Modena, Italy. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18: 3221. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18063221.
4. Spinelli A, Censi L, Mandolini D, et al. Inequalities in Childhood Nutrition, Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour and Obesity in Italy. Nutrients 2023; 15: 3893. doi: 10.3390/nu15183893.
5. Cunningham SA, Kramer MR, Narayan KM. Incidence of childhood obesity in the United States. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 1660–1661. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc1402397.
6. Sarwer DB, Polonsky HM. The Psychosocial Burden of Obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2016; 45: 677–688. doi: 10.1016/j.ecl.2016.04.016.
7. Ali AT, Crowther NJ. Factors predisposing to obesity: a review of the literature: CPD. South African Family Practice 2009; 52: 81-84.
8. Jackson J, Wolfenden L, Grady A, et al. Early childhood education and care-based healthy eating interventions for improving child diet: a systematic review protocol. Syst Rev 2020; 9: 181. doi: 10.1186/s13643-020-01440-4.
9. Blaine RE, Davison KK, Hesketh K, et al. Child Care Provider Adherence to Infant and Toddler Feeding Recommendations: Findings from the Baby Nutrition and Physical Activity Self-Assessment for Child Care (Baby NAP SACC) Study. Child Obes 2015; 11: 304–313. doi: 10.1089/chi.2014.0099.
10. Alexy U, Sichert-Hellert W, Kersting M, et al. Pattern of long-term fat intake and BMI during childhood and adolescence--results of the DONALD Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2004; 28: 1203–1209. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802708.
11. Stival C, Lugo A, Barone L, et al. Prevalence and Correlates of Overweight, Obesity and Physical Activity in Italian Children and Adolescents from Lombardy, Italy. Nutrients 2022; 14: 2258. doi: 10.3390/nu14112258.
12. Sugimori H, Yoshida K, Izuno T, et al. Analysis of factors that influence body mass index from ages 3 to 6 years: A study based on the Toyama cohort study. Pediatr Int 2004; 46: 302–310. doi: 10.1111/j.1442-200x.2004.01895.x.
13. Livingstone MB, Black AE. Markers of the validity of reported energy intake. J Nutr 2003; 133 Suppl 3: 895S–920S. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.3.895S.
14. Vollmer RL. Parental feeding style changes the relationships between children’s food preferences and food parenting practices: The case for comprehensive food parenting interventions by pediatric healthcare professionals. J Spec Pediatr Nurs 2019; 24: e12230. doi: 10.1111/jspn.12230.
15. Schratz LM, Larkin O, Dos Santos N, et al. Caregiver Influences on Eating Behaviors in Children: An Opportunity for Preventing Obesity. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2023; 25: 1035–1045. doi: 10.1007/s11883-023-01171-6.
16. Helle C, Hillesund ER, Wills AK, et al. Evaluation of an eHealth intervention aiming to promote healthy food habits from infancy -the Norwegian randomized controlled trial Early Food for Future Health. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2019; 16: 1. doi: 10.1186/s12966-018-0763-4.
17. Wright CM, Parker L, Lamont D, et al. Implications of childhood obesity for adult health: findings from thousand families cohort study. BMJ 2001; 323: 1280–1284. doi: 10.1136/bmj.323.7324.1280.
18. Ali AT, Al-Ani O, Al-Ani F, et al Polycystic ovary syndrome and metabolic disorders: A review of the literature. Afr J Reprod Health 2022; 26: 89–99. doi: 10.29063/ajrh2022/v26i8.9.
19. Danford CA, Schultz C, Marvicsin D. Parental roles in the development of obesity in children: challenges and opportunities. Res Rep Biol 2015; 6: 39–53.
20. Agung FH, Sekartini R, Sudarsono NC, et al. The barriers of home environments for obesity prevention in Indonesian adolescents. BMC Public Health 2022; 22: 2348. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-14669-6.
21. Xu H, Wen LM, Rissel C. Associations of parental influences with physical activity and screen time among young children: a systematic review. J Obes 2015; 2015: 546925. doi: 10.1155/2015/546925.
22. Lindsay AC, Wallington SF, Lees FD, et al. Exploring How the Home Environment Influences Eating and Physical Activity Habits of Low-Income, Latino Children of Predominantly Immigrant Families: A Qualitative Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15: 978. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15050978.
23. Wiseman N, Harris N, Downes M. Preschool children’s preferences for sedentary activity relates to parent’s restrictive rules around active outdoor play. BMC Public Health 2019; 19: 946. doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-7235-x.
24. Frosch CA, Schoppe-Sullivan SJ, O’Banion DD. Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective. Am J Lifestyle Med 2019; 15: 45–59. doi: 10.1177/1559827619849028.
25. Robertson W, Fleming J, Kamal A, et al. Randomised controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of ‘Families for Health’, a family-based childhood obesity treatment intervention delivered in a community setting for ages 6 to 11 years. Health Technol Assess 2017; 21: 1–180. doi: 10.3310/hta21010.
26. Sun Y, Shen Z, Zhan Y, et al. Effects of pre-pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on maternal and infant complications. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2020; 20: 390. doi: 10.1186/s12884-020-03071-y.
27. Erdoğan F, Eliaçik M, Özahi Ipek İ, et al. Is children’s Body Mass Index associated with their parents’ personality? A prospective controlled trial. Minerva Pediatr 2017; 69: 281–287. doi: 10.23736/S0026-4946.16.04241-9.
28. Ludwig DS, Currie J. The association between pregnancy weight gain and birthweight: a within-family comparison. Lancet 2010; 376: 984–990. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60751-9.
29. Tie HT, Xia YY, Zeng YS, et al. Risk of childhood overweight or obesity associated with excessive weight gain during pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2014 ;289: 247–257. doi: 10.1007/s00404-013-3053-z.
30. Shin J, Kwon Y, Kim JH, et al. Association between maternal weight gain during pregnancy and child’s body mass index at preschool age. Clin Exp Pediatr 2023; 66: 76–81. doi: 10.3345/cep.2022.01158.
31. Frederick IO, Williams MA, Sales AE, et al. Pre-pregnancy body mass index, gestational weight gain, and other maternal characteristics in relation to infant birth weight. Matern Child Health J 2008; 12: 557–567. doi: 10.1007/s10995-007-0276-2.
32. Goldstein RF, Abell SK, Ranasinha S, et al. Association of Gestational Weight Gain With Maternal and Infant Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA 2017; 317: 2207–2225. doi: 10.1001/jama.2017.3635.
33. Josey MJ, McCullough LE, Hoyo C, et al. Overall gestational weight gain mediates the relationship between maternal and child obesity. BMC Public Health 2019; 19: 1062. doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-7349-1.
34. Weber MB, Palmer W, Griffin M, et al. Infant and young child feeding practices and the factors that influence them: a qualitative study. J Health Popul Nutr 2023; 42: 32. doi: 10.1186/s41043-023-00371-9.
35. Liu F, Lv D, Wang L, et al. Breastfeeding and overweight/obesity among children and adolescents: a cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatr 2022; 22: 347. doi: 10.1186/s12887-022-03394-z.
36. Lee JW, Lee M, Lee J, et al. The Protective Effect of Exclusive Breastfeeding on Overweight/Obesity in Children with High Birth Weight. J Korean Med Sci 2019; 34: e85. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2019.34.e85.
37. Yan J, Liu L, Zhu Y, et al. The association between breastfeeding and childhood obesity: a meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2014; 14: 1267. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-1267.
38. Bammann K, Peplies J, De Henauw S, et al. Early life course risk factors for childhood obesity: the IDEFICS case-control study. PLoS One 2014; 9: e86914. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086914.
39. Huang J, Zhang Z, Wu Y, et al. Early feeding of larger volumes of formula milk is associated with greater body weight or overweight in later infancy. Nutr J 2018; 17: 12. doi: 10.1186/s12937-018-0322-5.
40. Kouwenhoven SMP, Muts J, Finken MJJ, et al. Low-Protein Infant Formula and Obesity Risk. Nutrients 2022; 14: 2728. doi: 10.3390/nu14132728.
41. Mannan H. Early Infant Feeding of Formula or Solid Foods and Risk of Childhood Overweight or Obesity in a Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Region of Australia: A Longitudinal Cohort Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15: 1685. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15081685.
42. Forbes JD, Azad MB, Vehling L, et al. Association of Exposure to Formula in the Hospital and Subsequent Infant Feeding Practices With Gut Microbiota and Risk of Overweight in the First Year of Life. JAMA Pediatr 2018; 172: e181161. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.1161.
43. Victora CG, Bahl R, Barros AJ, et al. Breastfeeding in the 21st century: epidemiology, mechanisms, and lifelong effect. Lancet 2016; 387: 475–490. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01024-7.
44. Deacon-Crouch M, Skinner I, Tucci J, et al. Association between short sleep duration and body mass index in Australian Indigenous children. J Paediatr Child Health 2018; 54: 49–54. doi: 10.1111/jpc.13658.
45. Kwon A, Choi Y, Kim S, et al. Characteristic Sleep Patterns and Associated Obesity in Adolescents. Life (Basel) 2022; 12: 1316. doi: 10.3390/life12091316.
46. Sunwoo JS, Yang KI, Kim JH, et al. Sleep duration rather than sleep timing is associated with obesity in adolescents. Sleep Med 2020; 68: 184–189. doi: 10.1016/j.sleep.2019.12.014.
47. Skjåkødegård HF, Danielsen YS, Frisk B, et al. Beyond sleep duration: Sleep timing as a risk factor for childhood obesity. Pediatr Obes 2021; 16: e12698. doi: 10.1111/ijpo.12698.
48. Golley RK, Maher CA, Matricciani L, et al. Sleep duration or bedtime? Exploring the association between sleep timing behaviour, diet and BMI in children and adolescents. Int J Obes (Lond) 2013; 37: 546–551. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2012.212.
49. Thivel D, Isacco L, Aucouturier J, et al. Bedtime and sleep timing but not sleep duration are associated with eating habits in primary school children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2015; 36: 158–165. doi: 10.1097/DBP.0000000000000131.
50. Nasreddine L, Naja F, Akl C, et al. Dietary, lifestyle and socio-economic correlates of overweight, obesity and central adiposity in Lebanese children and adolescents. Nutrients 2014; 6: 1038–1062. doi: 10.3390/nu6031038.
51. Ngan HTD, Tuyen LD, Phu PV, et al. Childhood overweight and obesity amongst primary school children in Hai Phong City, Vietnam. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2018; 27: 399–405. doi: 10.6133/apjcn.062017.08.
52. Dinsa GD, Goryakin Y, Fumagalli E, et al. Obesity and socioeconomic status in developing countries: a systematic review. Obes Rev 2012; 13: 1067–1079. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01017.x.
53. Ding S, Chen J, Dong B, et al. Association between parental socioeconomic status and offspring overweight/obesity from the China Family Panel Studies: a longitudinal survey. BMJ Open 2021; 11: e045433. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045433.
54. Dev DA, McBride BA, Fiese BH, et al.; Behalf Of The Strong Kids Research Team. Risk factors for overweight/obesity in preschool children: an ecological approach. Child Obes 2013; 9: 399–408. doi: 10.1089/chi.2012.0150.
55. Jiang J, Rosenqvist U, Wang H, et al. Risk factors for overweight in 2- to 6-year-old children in Beijing, China. Int J Pediatr Obes 2006; 1: 103–108. doi: 10.1080/17477160600699391.
56. Biehl A, Hovengen R, Grøholt EK, et al. Parental marital status and childhood overweight and obesity in Norway: a nationally representative cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2014; 4: e004502. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004502.
57. Hosokawa R, Katsura T. The Relationship between Neighborhood Environment and Child Mental Health in Japanese Elementary School Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17: 5491. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17155491.
58. Mekonnen T, Brantsæter AL, Andersen LF, et al. Mediators of differences by parental education in weight-related outcomes in childhood and adolescence in Norway. Sci Rep 2022; 12: 5671. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-09987-z.
59. Börnhorst C, Pigeot I, De Henauw S, et al. The effects of hypothetical behavioral interventions on the 13-year incidence of overweight/obesity in children and adolescents. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2023; 20: 100. doi: 10.1186/s12966-023-01501-6.
60. Reis WP, Ghamsary M, Galustian C, et al. Childhood Obesity: Is the Built Environment More Important Than the Food Environment?. Clin Med Insights Pediatr 2020; 14: 1179556520932123. doi: 10.1177/1179556520932123.
61. Di Maglie A, Marsigliante S, My G, et al. Effects of a physical activity intervention on schoolchildren fitness. Physiol Rep 2022; 10: e15115. doi: 10.14814/phy2.15115.
62. Mitchell LJ, Ball LE, Ross LJ, et al. Effectiveness of Dietetic Consultations in Primary Health Care: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Acad Nutr Diet 2017; 117: 1941–1962. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2017.06.364.
63. Voerman E, Santos S, Patro Golab B, et al. Maternal body mass index, gestational weight gain, and the risk of overweight and obesity across childhood: An individual participant data meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2019; 16: e1002744. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002744.
64. Lackovic M, Jankovic M, Mihajlovic S, et al. Gestational Weight Gain, Pregnancy Related Complications and the Short-Term Risks for the Offspring. J Clin Med 2024; 13: 445. doi: 10.3390/jcm13020445.
65. Lin LH, Lin J, Yan JY. Interactive Affection of Pre-Pregnancy Overweight or Obesity, Excessive Gestational Weight Gain and Glucose Tolerance Test Characteristics on Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes Among Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13: 942271. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.942271.
66. Langley-Evans SC, Pearce J, Ellis S. Overweight, obesity and excessive weight gain in pregnancy as risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcomes: A narrative review. J Hum Nutr Diet 2022; 35: 250–264. doi: 10.1111/jhn.12999.
67. Ali AT. Risk factors for endometrial cancer. Ceska Gynekol 2013; 78: 448–459.
68. Ali AT. Towards Prevention of Ovarian Cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2018; 18: 522–537. doi: 10.2174/1568009618666180102103008.
69. Aus AT. Can we prevent ovarian cancer?. Je možná prevence ovariálního karcinomu?. Ceska Gynekol 2020; 85: 49–58.
70. Oddy WH, Mori TA, Huang RC, et al. Early infant feeding and adiposity risk: from infancy to adulthood. Ann Nutr Metab 2014; 64: 262–270. doi: 10.1159/000365031.
71. Zaqout M, Michels N, Ahrens W, et al. Associations between exclusive breastfeeding and physical fitness during childhood. Eur J Nutr 2018; 57: 545–555. doi: 10.1007/s00394-016-1337-3.
72. Giannì ML, Roggero P, Orsi A, et al. Body composition changes in the first 6 months of life according to method of feeding. J Hum Lact 2014; 30: 148–155. doi: 10.1177/0890334413516196.
73. Li T, Badger TM, Bellando BJ, et al. Brain Cortical Structure and Executive Function in Children May Be Influenced by Parental Choices of Infant Diets. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2020; 41: 1302–1308. doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A6601.
74. Fernández-Alvira JM, Bammann K, Eiben G, et al. Prospective associations between dietary patterns and body composition changes in European children: the IDEFICS study. Public Health Nutr 2017; 20: 3257–3265. doi: 10.1017/S1368980017002361.
75. Papoutsou S, Savva SC, Hunsberger M, et al. Timing of solid food introduction and association with later childhood overweight and obesity: The IDEFICS study. Matern Child Nutr 2018; 14: e12471. doi: 10.1111/mcn.12471.
76. Magriplis E, Michas G, Petridi E, et al. Dietary Sugar Intake and Its Association with Obesity in Children and Adolescents. Children (Basel) 2021; 8: 676. doi: 10.3390/children8080676.
77. Dennison BA, Erb TA, Jenkins PL. Television viewing and television in bedroom associated with overweight risk among low-income preschool children. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 1028–1035. doi: 10.1542/peds.109.6.1028.
78. Barnett WS. Effectiveness of early educational intervention. Science 2011; 333: 975–978. doi: 10.1126/science.1204534.
79. Barnett T, Tollit M, Ratnapalan S, et al. Education support services for improving school engagement and academic performance of children and adolescents with a chronic health condition. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2023; 2: CD011538. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011538.pub2.
80. Yoong SL, Lum M, Wolfenden L, et al. Healthy eating interventions delivered in early childhood education and care settings for improving the diet of children aged six months to six years. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2023; 6: CD013862. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013862.pub2.
81. von Suchodoletz A, Lee DS, Henry J, et al. Correction: Early childhood education and care quality and associations with child outcomes: A meta-analysis. PLoS One 2023; 18: e0293056. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293056.
82. Ogonowska D, Pach D, Targosz D. Uzywanie substancji psychoaktywnych przez uczniów szkół srednich w Nowym Saczu [The usage of psychoactive substances among secondary school students in Nowy Sacz]. Przegl Lek 2009; 66: 293–300.
83. Kandel DB, Davies M. High school students who use crack and other drugs. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996; 53: 71–80. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830010073010.
84. Chiang YC, Li X, Lee CY, et al. Effects of Social Attachment on Experimental Drug Use From Childhood to Adolescence: An 11-Year Prospective Cohort Study. Front Public Health 2022; 10: 818894. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.818894.
85. Whitaker RC, Dietz WH. Role of the prenatal environment in the development of obesity. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 768–776. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(98)70302-6.
86. Fernandes A, Ubalde-López M, Yang TC, et al. School-Based Interventions to Support Healthy Indoor and Outdoor Environments for Children: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20: 1746. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20031746.
87. Wu J, Fu Y, Chen D, et al. Sedentary behavior patterns and the risk of non-communicable diseases and all-cause mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud 2023; 146: 104563. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2023.104563.
88. Park JH, Moon JH, Kim HJ, et al. Sedentary Lifestyle: Overview of Updated Evidence of Potential Health Risks. Korean J Fam Med 2020; 41: 365–373. doi: 10.4082/kjfm.20.0165.
89. Flouri E, Midouhas E, Joshi H, et al. Emotional and behavioural resilience to multiple risk exposure in early life: the role of parenting. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2015; 24: 745–755. doi: 10.1007/s00787-014-0619-7.
90. Tamura K, Morrison J, Pikhart H. Children’s behavioural problems and its associations with socioeconomic position and early parenting environment: findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2020; 29: e155. doi: 10.1017/S2045796020000700.
91. Chu M, Fang Z, Lee CY., et al. Collaboration between School and Home to Improve Subjective Well-being: A New Chinese Children’s Subjective Well-being Scale. Child Ind Res 2023; 16, 1527–1552.

© 2024 Termedia Sp. z o.o.
Developed by Bentus.